Geology
Reference: Petroleum Geology, Exploration, Drilling, and Production by Norman J. Hyne.
Earth = 4.5 billion years old
Clean Sand => well sorted sandstone
Dirty Sand => clay-sized grains
Water table
Parts Per Thousand (PPT) salt content
Fresh water = 0 ~ 1 ppt
Sea water = 35 ppt
Brines = 300 ppt
percolate ['p/&r/ k/&/ leit] 动 过滤;使渗出;使浸透
silt [silt] 名 淤泥.[被]以淤泥塞住
granule ['gr/a/ nju:l] 名 小粒;细粒;颗粒
pebble ['pebl] 名 鹅卵石;水晶[透镜];玛瑙;粗面
cobble ['k/o/ bl] 名 圆石;鹅卵石;圆石子路;圆煤块 动 铺鹅卵石;修;拙劣地修补;粗劣地修补
Boulder > Cobble > Pebble > Granule > Sand > Silt > Clay-sized
Poorly sorted rock
cementation [s/E/ men'tei/ch/ /&/ n] 名 水泥接合;接合
Clastic sediments: => by breakdown of rocks and were transported and deposited as whole particles
Organic sediments => seashells
Crystalline sediments => precipitation of salt out of water
crystalline ['kristlain] 形 水晶的;透明的
clastic ['kl/a/ stik] 形 碎片性的
Plutonic [plu:'t/o/ nik] 形 Pluto的;阴间的
Plutonic igneous rock => crystallized and solidified while still below the surface of the earth. It takes thousands of years to solidify, => large crystals.
Volcanic igneous rocks => crystallize on the surface of the earth as lava. As the lava flows out of a volcano, it immediately comes in contact with air or water and rapidly solidifies. =>very small crystals the naked eyes cannot distinguish.
Black oil or low-shrinkage oil=>long heavey non-voatile molecules, usually black;
Volatile oil or high-shrinkage oil=>intermediate size molecules
Retrograde gas=>a gas in reservoir under original pressure and liquid condensate forms in the subsurface as the pressure decreases with production
Wet gas=>entirely as gas in reservoir during production but prodeces a liquid condensate on the surface.
Dry gas=>pure methane, it does not produce condensate either in the reservoir or on the surface
British Thermal Unit (btu)=heat given by burning 1 wooden match
1 cubic feet of natural gas = 1000 btu
1 BOE = 6040 cubic ft of averaged natural gas
condensate [k/&/ n'deinseit] 名 浓缩物[液];固化物
hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
coke [k/O/ k] 名 焦炭;制成焦炭;成焦炭;可口可乐
kerosene ['k/ar/ /&/ s/E/ n] 名 灯火;火油;煤灯
naphtha ['n/a/ f/th/ /&/ ] 名 挥发油
butane [bju:'tein] 名 丁烷[碳化氢的一种]
propane ['pr/O/ pein] 名 丙烷[碳氢化合物之一种]
ethane ['e/th/ ein] 名 乙烷[石油中发出的可燃气体]
methane ['me/th/ ein] 名 甲烷;沼气
naphthene n. [化] (石油)环烷, 环烷(属)
butylene n. [化]丁烯
propylene ['pr/O/ p/&/ l/E/ n] 名 丙烯
ethylene ['e/th/ /&/ l/E/ n] 名 乙烯
methane ['me/th/ ein] 名 甲烷;沼气
Feedstock: material used for production
Gasline => 5 ~ 10 carbon atoms
1 barrel = 42 gallons
Pour Point: 52 degree centigrade to –60 degree centigrade
Cloud Point: is 1 or 2 degrees lower than the Pour Point.
Sulfur:
Sweet crudes:
Sour crudes: > 1% sulfur by weight
Heavy oil => in general sour; Light oil => sweet
Low sulfur crude: 0 ~ 0.6% sulfur
Intermediate sulfur crude: 0.6 ~ 1.7% sulfur;
High sulfur: above 1.7% sulfur.
American Petroleum Institute:
API = 141.5 / specific gravity at 60 degree Feriheit – 131.5
Average weight crude oils: 25 ~ 35 API
Heavy oilds are below 25 API
asphaltic [/a/ s'foltik] 形 柏油的
Asphaltic molecules > 40 carbon atoms
pungent ['p/A/ nd/zh/ /&/ nt] 形 苦痛.刺激性.严厉.尖的
近义词： acid; biting; bitter; sharp; spicy; stinging; tangy
benzene ['benz/E/ n] 名 苯[煤焦油提的溶剂]
aromatic [/a/ r/&/ 'm/a/ tik] 形 香气浓的;芬芳[族]的
Aromatic molecules and benzene molecules: CnH2n-6, with double bounds, with some unsaturated (double) bounds.
waxy ['w/a/ ksi] 形 像蜡的;苍白的;上蜡的 形 蜡样变性的;震怒;易怒的
paraffin ['p/a/ r/&/ fin] 名 石蜡;地蜡;石蜡油;煤油
Paraffin or alkane molecule is a straight chain of carbon atoms (CnH2n+2), (n>=5) when the paraffin modecule is longer than 18 carbons in length; it is a wax (waxy crude oil)
naphthene n. [化] (石油)环烷, 环烷(属)
Naphthene or cycloparaffin modecule is a closed circle with saturated bonds between the carbon atoms (CnH2n), oil with high naphthene content tend to have a large asphalt content that reduces the value of the oil.
wildcat ['wailk/a/ t] 名 山猫;急性;有勇无谋 名 试井;危险的;投机的
derrick ['d/ar/ ik] 名 起重机之一种;铁架塔[油井]
Black shale (organic-rich) is the most common for source rock;
Oil is formed between 65 to 150 degree centigrade at a depth of 2km; Gas at >150 degree centigrade and at depth of 5.5km;
In Tulsa, there are up to 1500m of well-layered sedimentary rocks. (About 100 layers)
Basement rocks = unproductive rocks = igneous and metamorphic rocks = very old rocks
When drilling encounters base rock, the drilling is usually stopped.
A Shield area= basement rocks exposed to the surface (no sediment rocks) => such as Canadian Shield in eastern Canada, tends to be a large low-lying area. Ore minerals such as iron, copper, lead, zinc, gold and silver are mined from the basement rock in shield areas.
Basin = sedimentary rocks are very thick. The Caspian basin has about 26km sedimentary rock cover. Most gas and oil is found and produced from the sedimentary rock basins.
Source rock = buried deep enough in the geological past to generate gas and oil. The deep part the basin where the gas and oil forms is called the kitchen or oven.
There are 600 sedimentary rock basins in the world, among them 40% are very productive, while the rest are barren. The unproductive basins either have no source rocks, the source rocks have never been buried deep enough to generate gas ad oil, or the basin has was overheated, and the oil was destroyed.
Minerals = crystals and grains in rocks.
amorphous [/&/ 'morf/&/ s] 形 无定形的;非结晶质的
Amorphous = minerals that have no crystal form
plum [pl/A/ m] 名 李.梅子;葡萄乾;精华;十万磅金钱 名 报偿;意外收益;近深蓝色的紫色
cleavage ['kl/E/ vid/zh/ ] 名 劈开;分裂;劈裂性
近义词： break; division; split
Cleavage = the tendency for some minerals to break along smooth surfaces
Moh’s scale = the hardness of a mineral: mineral talc=1, diamond =10
talc [t/a/ lk] 名 滑石;云母
Specific gravity = relative weight of a mineral compared to the weight of an equal volume of water.
mica ['maik/&/ ] 名 云母
Mica = a common mineral that breaks along one perfect cleavage plane, forming very thin, elastic flakes. KAl3Si3O10(OH)2.
Quartz = SiO2
calcite ['k/a/ lsait] 名 方解石
Calcite = CaCO3
halite ['h/a/ lait] 名 岩盐
Halite = NaCl is common table salt
gypsum ['d/zh/ ips/&/ m] 名 石膏
Gypsum = CaSO4 2H2O = alabaster
pyrite ['pairait] 名 黄铁矿
Pyrite = (FeS2) = fool’s gold
igneous ['igni/&/ s] 形 火的;似火的;火成的
igneous rock 火成岩
Granite is the most common intrusive, igneous rock. It has the coarse grained texture characteristic of all plutonic rocks. It consists of the minerals quartz, feldspar, biotite and hornblende.
Basalt = the most abundant volcanic rock. It has the fine-grained texture characteristic of lava. Gas bubbles were frozen in the basalt.
gneiss [nais] 名 片麻岩
Gneiss = product of intense metamorphism. It is easily identified by its foliated texture.
conglomerate [k/&/ n'gl/o/ m/&/ rit] 形 密集而固结的
Conglomerate = a clastic rock with a wide range of pebble- to clay-size grains.
Sandstone = composed primarily of sand grains that have been naturally cemented together.
Shale = composed of clay-sized particles and is the most common sedimentary rock. It is usually well-layered and relatively soft. Shell breaks down to mud when exposed to water. Shale is commonly deposited on river floodplains and on the bottom of oceans, lake or lagoons.
Black Shale = common source rocks for gas and oil.
Gray Shale = a caprock on a reservoir rock in a petroleum trap.
Mudstone = similar to shale but is composed of both silt- and clay-sized grains.
Limestone = composed of calcite mineral grains that range in size from very fine to large, sparking crystals.
Many animals that live in the sea such as corals and clams secrete shells of lime (CaCO3).
Fossil Assemblage = a group of fossils found in the same sedimentary rocks.
Paleontologists = scientists who study fossils.
Weathering = the breakdown of solid rock.
Erosional Process = those that transport and deposit sediments.
Unconformity = Buried, ancient erosional surfaces are called unconformities.
Disformity = an erosional channel in which the sedimentary rock layers above and below the erosional surface parallel. It is an ancient river channel that is usually filled with sand that has become sandstone.
Angular unconformity = an ancient erosional surface in which the sedimentary rock layers below the unconformity are tilted at an angle to the layers above the unconformity. Angular unconformity can form gas and oil traps. The sedimentary rock layer above it must be a caprock that acts as a seal; usually a shale or salt layer; the gas and oil forms below the unconformity in a source rock as black shale. Angular unconformities can cover large subsurface areas, they can form giant gas and oil fields. (East Texas field discovered in 1930 by random drilling 72km by 8km with more than 30,000 wells with 5 billion bbls and the Prudhoe Bay field in Alaska are both angular unconformity traps.
Young Anticline = prolific petroleum producers occur as a line of hills that cross the LA basin. If the anticlines are relatively young, they haven’t been eroded and appear as topographic ridges on the surface.
Plunging anticlines/synclines = most anticlines and synclines are not level and are tilted with respect to the surface of the earth.
plunge [pl/A/ nd/zh/ ] 动 钻进;使陷入;投入;全埋在地
近义词： dive; drop; fall; plummet
Nose = the pattern of an eroded plunging anticline or syncline is lobate-shaped, called a nose.
lobate ['l/O/ beit] 形 有lobe的
Dome = a circular or elliptical uplift. When eroded flat, a dome forms a bull’s eye pattern of concentric rock layers with the oldest rock in the center.
Middle East oil fields = anticline and dome traps.
Cushing oil field southwest of Tulsa = an anticline with three domes superimposed on it, which reservoir rock is the Bartlesville Sandstone along with several other sandstones and a limestone. It was the largest oil field during WWI.
Homoclines = sedimentary rocks dipping uniformly in one direction are known as a homocline. Alternating layers of hard and soft sedimentary rocks in a homocline will be eroded to form a series of parallel ridges on the surface of the ground.
Joints = fractures in the rocks without any movement of one side relative to the other. Joints in sedimentary rocks improve the reservoir qualities of the rock.
Faults = breaks in the rocks along which one side has moved relative to the other. The relative movement of each side is used to classify faults: dip-slip faults move primarily up and down; whereas strike-slip faults move primarily horizontal; oblique-slip faults have roughly equal dip-slip and strike-slip displacements.
Footwall = the side of a fault that extends under the fault plane
Hanging Wall = the side that protrudes above the fault plane
Throw = the vertical displacement on a dip-slip fault.
Downthrown Side = the side of the dip-slip fault that goes down
Upthrown Side = the side that goes up
Normal dip-slip fault = if the hanging wall has moved down relative to the footwall.
Graben is the down-dropped block between two normal faults.
horst n. 地垒
Horst = the ridge left standing between two grabens.
Reverse dip-slip fault = if the hanging wall has moved up relative to the footwall. It is possible to drill through this fault and encounter the same rock layers twice in a double section. Reverse fault is caused by compression; while a normal fault is caused by tension (the opposite).
Sealing Fault = it prevents fluid flow across or along the fault.
Fault Traps = common but are usually relatively small because a single fault is linear and doesn’t have sides to contain large volumes of petroleum.
Two most common petroleum reservoir rocks are sandstones and carbonates (limestones and dolomites). Most sandstones and limestones however, are not reservoir rocks. Some reservoir rocks, such as limestone reefs and river channel sandstones, were deposited completely encased in shale. Because the shale below is a source rock for gas and oil and the shale above is a caprock, the reef or channel contains gas and oil. This is called a primary stratigraphic trap.
limestone ['laimst/O/ n] 名 石灰石
dolomite ['d/ol/ /&/ mait] 名 白云石;白云石山脉
encase [in'keis] 动 装进容器内;包;围绕
Sand Dunes are formed by wind in both desert and coastal environment. The only size is only clay-size and silt-size and is always well-sorted and can be excellent reservoir rock.
Rocky Mountain Overthrust Belt oil and gas fields = ancient dune sandstones formed extensive subsurface sandstone reservoirs (Jurassic age Nugget Sandstone).
Point Bars = the crescent-shaped well-sorted sand bars deposited on the inside of the river meanders
Incised Valley Fills = most river channel sandstones are deposited and preserved during a fall and rise of sea level. During sea level fall, the river incises (erodes) a valley; and during sea level rise, the valley is filled with sands. If the sands are overlain by a caprock, it can form a gas or oil trap.
Reefs = mounds of shells formed by a plant or animal. If the ancient reef is covered with a shale or salt caprock, it forms a gas and oil trap.
A large portion of the oil production in Canada comes from buried Devonian age atolls and carrier reefs, located primarily in Alberta.
atoll ['/a/ tol] 名 环礁
Limestone Platform = a large area covered with shallow tropical seas where limestones are being deposited.
Oolites = As water saturated with calcium carbonate flows over the limestone platform, calcium carbonate precipitates out of the water forming sand- and silt-size spheres called oolites.
oolite n. [地质]鱼卵石, 鱼卵状石灰石,鲕粒岩
Oolitic limestones = limestones composed of oolites. They have excellent original porosity and can be good reservoir rock.
Karst Limestone = A highly dissolved (by water with carbon dioxide = carbonic acid) limestone and can have excellent porosity and permeability. Some karst limestones have caves but more often they have solution pores up to several inches in diameter called vugs. The great Middle East oil fields are primarily in limestone reservoir rocks. Their excellent porosity and permeability come from vugs in the karst limestone.
karst [ka:st] 名 石灰岩地区常见的地形
Chalks = extremely fine-grained limestones composed of microfossil shells (single-celled animals).
Dolomites = (CaMg(CO3)2) sedimentary rock that forms only by the alteration of a pre-existing limestone. Dolomite is often a good reservoir rock. Limestones tend to lose porosity when they are buried deeper due to compaction. Dolomites, however, are harder and less soluble than limestones and retain porosity. The dolomitized oil field reefs of western Canada have an average of 1% more porosity and 10 times greater permeability than the limestone reefs.
Sweden = no petroleum.
Middle East = more than one-third. Where the sedimentary rocks are thick, a large amount of petroleum is likely to occur. Where there are no sedimentary rocks, there is no petroleum.
Basin = a large area with thick sedimentary rocks. A basin is formed by subsidence of the basement rock. The depression is originally filled with ocean water and, eventually, with sediments. Subsidence occurred during the Paleozoic time and very thick carbonates and evaporates accumulated during the Silurian time at the Michigan basin.
Half-graben basins = formed by subsidence along one side of a normal fault.
Coastal Plains = formed by thick sediments deposited adjacent to an ocean. They originate when mountains are uplifted adjacent to a coast. As erosion lowers the mountains, streams deposit sands along the beaches, and waves carry the silts and clays offshore. The sandy beaches are deposited (prograde) out into the ocean, forming the coastal plain.
Gulf of Mexico Coastal Plain = 12km to 18km of sedimentary rocks. It is the of the most prolific petroleum producing areas of the world.
Atlantic Coastal Plain = barren for gas and oil, possibly due to the lack of source rock;
facies n. 面容, 外观, 表面, 外表, (生态学中的)演替系列优种社会, 演替系列变群丛, [地]相
A single layer of sedimentary rock can be composed of several different rock types, each is a facies, a distinctive portion of the rock layer.
A Facies Change = change between rock types.
Sediments being deposited along the margin of an ocean have both a sandstone and shale facies.
As waves wash ashore, silt and clay are suspended in the water. The mud is carried offshore and deposited in deep water to become shale. Sand, too heavy to be suspended in the water by the waves, is deposited on the beach to become sandstone. This forms a layer of sediments with a shale (deep-water) and sandstone (beach) facies.
Jurassic Age Smackover Limestone = subsurface of the northern GOM coastal plain (4.6km to 6km) and in some area it is good reservoir rock. The best reservoir rock is the oolite facies. In Texas, parts of the oolite facies have been dolomitized, increasing the porosity to 30%. The salt facies, in contrast, is impermeable and acts as a caprock.
Sandstone pinch or wedge out in a shale layer = trap
Pinch out of dolomite in salt along the edge of a basin = trap
Sometimes the boundary between two facies is harp, and the rock interfinger or wedge out in another rock layer.
Topographic map = shows the elevation of the earth’s surface.
Geological Map = shows where each rock layer crops out on the surface of the earth. Each rock layer is given a different pattern, color, and symbol on the map.
A formation = the basic sedimentary rock layer used for geologic mapping. A formation is a mapable rock layer with a definite top and bottom. Geologists have divided all sedimentary rocks into formations.
A formation = has a two-part name. The first part is a town, where the layer crops out on the surface; the second part is the dominant rock type, such as sandstone or limestone. E.g. Bartlesville Sandstone.
If the sedimentary rock layer is a mixture of rock types, the word formation is used: The Coffeyville Formation (composed of both sandstone and shale).
Members = Formations ca be subdivided into smaller units. A member is a distinctive but local bed in a formation. It is also given a formal, two-part name. For example, the Layton Sandstone Member is part of the Cofferyville Formation.
If the member is only found in subsurface, it is given a letter and number such as the H5 Sands Member. Adjacent formations of similar rocks can be jointed to form a group and given a geographic name (i.e. the Chase Group).
A geologic map is a flat, two-dimensional representation of the earth’s surface.
Strike = horizontal orientation of a plane, such as a sedimentary rock layer or a fault.
Dip = the direction and vertical angle of the plane, it is measured perpendicular to the strike line.
A Base Map = a map that shows the position of the wells that have drilled in an area.
Spotting a well = involves that location of a wellsite and placing the well symbol on a base map.
A Structure Map = uses contours to show the elevation of the top of a subsurface sedimentary rock layer. An important structural map would be one contoured on the top of a potential reservoir rock or drilling target. Faults are shown as a straight line.
An Isopach Map = uses contours to show the thickness of a surface layer. If an oil or gas field has been drilled, an Isopach map can be made of the pay zone.
Pay Zone = the vertical distance in a well that produces gas and/or oil.
Gross Pay = contours the entire reservoir thickness including nonproductive water-bearing and tight zones.
Net Pay = contours only the productive thickness of the reservoir. A net pay isopach map of a reservoir is used to calculate the reservoir volume and the oil and gas reservoir.
Sandstone Pinch or Wedge Out = the isopach contour becomes zero.
A Percentage Map = plots the percentage of a specific rock type such as sandstone in a formation. Higher percentages of reservoir quality rocks, such as sandstones and carbonates, imply a larger reservoir net pay.
The continents are surrounded by a shallow, almost flat platform, the Continental Shelf. It extends from the beach out with a slope of less than 1 degree to the shelf break.
The Shelf Break is located in an average water depth of 140m. The width of the continental shelf varies from 0.8km to 800km with an average with of 80km.
Continental Slope = seaward of the continental shelf and slope break. The continental slope leading down to the bottom of the ocean has a slop of about 4 degrees and is the geological edge of the continents.
Trubidity current deposits are called turbidites and can be sandstone reservoirs.
turbidity [t/&r/ 'bid/&/ ti] 名 混浊;混乱
Deep-water production on the continental slopes of the GOM, western African, and Brazil are from turbidite sands deposited in submarine canyons and submarine fan distributary channels now buried in the surface. The sands are relatively young and have not been buried too deep. Because of that they often have porosites of 20 to 30%, thousands of millidarcy permeability, and are excellent reservoir rocks. They riled oil and gas a high rate to wells to justify the cost of drilling in deep water.
The deepest parts of the seafloor are Ocean Trenches.
The basement rock that forms the crust of the earth is basalt lava rock. It averages 8km in thickness. Continents are high in elevation because they also have granite, averaging 27km. Much thicker than basalt.
A Source Rock is a rock that forms gas or oil. The source of gas and oil is organic matter preserved in sedimentary rocks. Some organic matter is preserved when quickly buried by other sediments before it decayed or was deposited on the bottom of a sea with stagnant, oxygen-free waters. The black color of sedimentary rocks include coal, shale and some limestones.
Plant material is transformed into coal by temperature and time. Wood and coal have a specific chemistry that can generate only methane (CH4) gas. That’s why coalmines are dangerous. Wells are often drilled to Coal Bed to produce Coal Bed or Coal Seam Gas (methane gas).
The gas occurs adsorbed to the surface of the coal along natural fractures called Clints. A coal seam gas well first produces water for a period of time up to a year as the fractures drain. As the pressure in the coal decreases, the methane gas is released from the surface of the coal. (including non-woody plant, algae).
Black Shale = commonly 1 to 3% organic matter by weight; it can have up to 20%.
Green Shale or Gray Shale = 0.5%
Middle East, Dark Limestones are also source rocks.
Biogenic or Microbial gas = large volumes of methane gas (swamp or marsh gas) generated by bacterial action on the organic matter at relative4 shallow depths. Generation of biogenic gas decreases with depth as bacterial action decreases with increasing temperature.
microbial
microbe
Immature Oil = Heavy oil 150 F-200 F
Mature Oil = light oil 250 – 300 F
> 300F crude oil is irreversibly transformed into graphite and natural gas. This temperature can only happens at a depth of about 5.5km in a sedimentary rock basin.
The generation of a liquid or gas from a solid causes a large increase in volume. This stresses the source rock and fractures the shale.
Carrier Beds = rock layers that are very permeable and transmit fluids.
Migration = the vertical and lateral flow of the petroleum from the source rock
Only about 0.3 to 36% of all the gas and oil that forms in a sedimentary rock basins, is ever trapped.
Light Oil and Thermogenic Gas can migration a long distance.
Free Gas Cap = Once the gas and oil migrate into the trap, the gas being lightest, goes to the top of the trap to form the free gas cap.
Oil Reservoir = the oil goes to the middle of the trap
Salt Water = the heaviest goes to the bottom.
A Saturated Pool = always has a free gas cap on top of the oil reservoir. The oil in the reservoir has dissolved all the natural gas it can hold and is saturated.
An Unsaturated Pool = lacks a free gas cap. The oil has some dissolved gas but it can hold more and is unsaturated.
Sometime there is only a gas reservoir on water.
Gas-oil Contact = the boundary in the reservoir between the free gas cap and the oil.
Oil-water Contact =
Crest = the top of the trap.
The exploratory well is usually drilled on structure (on the crest).
Off Structure = when a well is drilled to the side of the crest.
A Dry Hole, Duster or Wet Well = If a well is drilled too far off structure, it might not encounter commercial amounts of oil or gas
duster
Caprock or Seal = in a trap the reservoir rock must be overlain by caprock or seal, an impermeable rock layer that doesn’t allow fluids to flow through it.
Shales and Salt Layers = two common caprocks. Well-cemented or shaly rocks, micrite, chalk and permafrost can also be caprocks.
Oil in Oklahoma = generated and trapped during the Pennsylvanian time. (325 – 290 Million Years—Coal Deposites)
North Slope of Alaska = Cretaceous time (144-65 Million Years—Flowering plants, modern insect, bird and mammal groups)
Gulf of Mexico = some of the oils are very young, just a couple million years old, and some oil is probably still forming and accumulating today.
A Reservoir Rock = a rock that can both store and transmit fluids. A reservoir rock must have both porosity and permeability.
Porosity = is the percent volume of the rock that is not occupied by solids.
Pore = the spaces of a porous rock.
There are several accurate methods to measure porosity using well cuttings, cores, and wireline well logs.
Well Cutting or Rock Chips = made by the drill bit are flushed up the well by the drilling mud. Well cutting are exampled by geologists using binocular microscope to identify the rock types and see the pores.
A Core is a cylinder of rock that is drilled from the well. A small Plug in the shape of cylinder is cut from the core. The plug is then dried to remove the fluids from the pores. Porosimeter is used then to measure the porosity of the plug.
Three sideline well logs—Neutron Porosity, Formation Density and Sonic-Velocity logs.
Very deep gas reservoirs need very little porosity because of the very high pressure.
Porosity=0~5% is insignificant; 5~10% is poor; 10~15% fair; 15~20% good; 20~25% excellent.
Porosity Cutoff = a minimum porosity value is often used to help decide whether or not to complete an oil well. (Sand stone is 3~5% porosity cutoff).
Permeability = a measure of the ease with which a fluid can flow through a rock. Permeability is measured in Darcies (D) or milidarcies (md). A millidarcy is 0.001 Darcy.
A Darcy = the permeability that will allow a flow of a cubic centimeter under a differential pressure of a atmosphere.
Permeameter = used to measure the permeability of the dried plug by measuring the flow of air or nitrogen through it.
10md = poor; 10-100md = good; 100-1000md is excellent (for an oil reservoir)
Tight or Tight Sands = A very low or no permeability sandstone or carbonate.
Any fractured rock can be a reservoir rock. Fractured shales, cherts and chalks are reservoir rocks in many fields.
serpentine
IN East of Austin, volcanoes erupted during the Cretaceous time; the area was covered with GOM waters. The submarine lava spread out along the ocean bottom, forming mushroom-shaped deposits of basalt. The surface of the basalt was highly fractured and weathered by seawater, giving it porosity and permeability. Sediments then covered the volcanoes that are not buried in the Texas coastal plain. Oil later migrated up into the weathered basalt that is called serpentine by the drillers.
Granite Wash = potential reservoir rock formed by the weathering of granite. Granite is composed of large, well-sorted, sand-sized mineral grains and weathers to form well-sorted sandstone that can be very thick. After the granite and granite wash have been buried in the subsurface, oil and gas can form in source rocks at a lower elevation. The oil and gas can then migrated up and into the granite wash.
Saturation = the relative amount of the oil/gas and water sharing the pores of the reservoir will vary from reservoir to reservoir and is called saturation. It is expressed as a percent and always adds up to 100%.
Oilfield Brine = very salty water that shared the pores with the oil. Saturation is why most oil wells pump not only oil, but also water called oilfield brine.
Oil Shales = sedimentary rocks rich in a type of organic matter called kerogen. Oil Shales are organic-rich source rocks that are old enough but have never been buried deep enough for heat to transform the organic matter into oil. They are immature source rocks.
Shale Oil = when the oil shale is heated to about 350C, kerogen is transformed into crude oil called Shale Oil.
Because the oil shale crops out, it can be surface-mined. The oil shale on the sides of the cavern is set on fire for heat to generate oil in the subsurface.
Tar Sands = composed of very heavy oil mixed with sands. The oil is too viscous to be produced by conventional methods. Very large tar sand deposits occur in northern Alberta and Venezuela.
Spill Point = The trap can be filled down to a level, called the spill point, at which it cannot hold any more.
Field = the surface area directly above one or more producing reservoirs on the same trap such as an anticline. The field is commonly given a geographic name such as a town, hill or creek.
A Reservoir = a subsurface zone that produces oil and gas but does not communicate with other reservoirs.
Structural Traps = formed by deformation of the reservoir rock, such as a fold or fault – anticlines and domes
Primary stratigraphic traps = formed by deposition of the reservoir rock, such as a river channel sandstone or limestone reef that is often completely encased in shale.
A Secondary Stratigraphic Trap is formed by an angular unconformity.
A Combination Trap has both structural and stratigraphic elements.
Rollover Anticline = a large potential gas and oil trap, commonly occurs on the basin side of the growth fault.
Sealing Faults = divide the structure into individual procuring compartments or pools. They may have different oil-water and gas-oil contacts in reservoir level, or pressure level.
Drag Folds = formed by friction generated along a fault plane when a fault moves. Friction causes the beds on either side of the fault to be dragged up on one side and down on the other side of the fault.
Overthrust or Disturbed Belts = where most mountain ranges on land were formed by compressional forces and display compressional features such as folds, reverse faults and thrust faults. (Rocky Mountains, numerous thrust faults and the drag folds in the Nugget Sandstone at 3km below the surface)
Secondary Stratigraphic Traps = Angular Unconformities angular unconformities can form giant gas and oil traps when a reservoir rock is terminated under an angular unconformity and overlain by a seal. Example: East Texas field with 5 billion bbls and Prodhoe Bay field with 13 billion bbls (Permian-Triassic age Sadlerochit Sandstone).
Primary Stratigraphic Traps = Reefs, Beaches, River Channels and incised valley fills and updip pinch outs of sandstones form primary stratigraphic traps.
Salt = composed primarily of halite, is a solid that flows slowly as a viscous liquid under pressure. A salt layer is formed by the evaporation of water.
halite
Piercement Dome = When sands and shales are deposited on the salt layer, the weight of the overlying sediment presses down on the salt layer. The salt lifts up a weak area in the overlying sedimentary rocks,. As the salt rises, it uplifts and pierces overlying sedimentary rocks to form a piercement dome.
Large amounts of salt are dissolved as the rising salt dome comes in contact with water in the overlying sediments. However 1 to 5% of the salt is insoluble anhydrite. As the salt dissolves, an insoluble layer called the caprock builds up on the top of the dome. This caprock ranges from 30 to 300M thick. The caprock if often highly fractured and has vugular pores.
anhydrite
Individual salt domes often have numerous petroleum traps. There can be hundreds of Salt Overhangs in all directions.
cavernous
dolomite
spindle
The Spindletop slat dome near Beaumont, TX was the first salt dome successfully drilled for petroleum (1901). A large mound with gas seeps marked the surface expression of the Spindletop salt dome. A well on that mound was drilled into the Spindletop caprock at just below 300m in 1901. The caprock was very cavernous dolomite with high-pressure oil in it. The well blew out as the world’s first great gusher at the rate of 100k bbls of green-black oil per day to a height of 30m above the derrick.
gusher
Within 9 months, 64 more wells were completed into the Spindletop caprock, each producing a gusher. Production was depleted in 1903 because of unrestricted production. It was not until 1925 that the deeper oil along the flanks of Spindletop was discovered. Spindletop created more than 100 companies, including Texco.
Petroleum Geologist = exploration and development of petroleum reservoirs
Exploration Geologist = searches for new gas and oil fields
Development Geologist = directs the drilling of wells to exploit a field
Petroleum Geochemist = uses chemistry to explore for and develop petroleum reservoirs.
A Marker Bed = a distinctive rock layer that is easy to identify. Volcanic ash layers, thin beds of coal, limestone, or sandstone, and fossil zones are good marker beds.
A Key Horizon = the top or bottom of a thick, distinctive rock layer, can also be used to start the correction.
A Stratigraphic Cross Section is made by hanging the well logs from the same market bed in each well.
Scouts = Large oil companies use scouts who gather information on any petroleum-related activity in their assigned region. A scout uses all kinds of ethical methods to find out where competitors are exploring, leasing and drilling. The scout fills out a form, called a scout ticket.
Scouts from different oil companies meet periodically to coordinate their efforts and exchange information in scout checks or meetings.
Well-cutting Libraries = collect well cutting for a regional area.
Well-core Libraries = collect cores drilled in that state, province, or country.
A Play = a combination of trap, reservoir rock, and seal that has been shown by previously discovered fields to contain commercial petroleum deposits in an area.
A Tread or Fairway is the area along which the play has been proven, and more fields could be found.
fairway
A Prospect = the exact location where the geological and economic conditions are favorable for drilling and exploratory well.
Gravity Meter = very sensitive to the density of the rocks in the subsurface. It measures gravity in units of acceleration called milligals. A mass of relatively light rocks such as a slat doom or porous reef can be detected by the gravity meter because of lower than normal gravity values over it.
Salt has lower reading in magnetics because the salt is light in density and has no magnetite mineral grains compared to the surrounding sedimentary rocks
A dome or anticline can be identified by both a high gravity and high magnetic anomaly. This is caused by dense and magnetite-bearing basement rock that is closer to the surface int eh center of the structure.
Fee Land = In the US and parts of Canada, private land is called fee land and has two, separate ownerships, a surface rights and a mineral rights owner.
Surface Rights Owner = can build a house, ranch or farm on the land
Mineral Rights Owner = explore and drill for gas and oil and owns and can produce the gas and oil.
About one-third of the mineral rights on land in the US is owned by the federal or state government in public land.
Landman = to identify and locate the mineral rights owner of free land.
Authority or Authorization for Expenditure (AFE) = is completed. This form estimates the cost o drilling and completing the well, both as a dry hole and a producer. Costs such as drilling intangibles, completion intangibles, and equipment are listed.
Intangibles = salaries, services, and e2quipment that cannot be salvaged after the well is drilled.
A Wildcat or Controlled Exploratory Well = a well drilled to discover new oil or gas reserves.
Discovery Well = if the well does discover a new field, it is called the discovery well for that field.
Developmental Wells = wells drilled in the known extent of the field
Infill Wells = wells drilled between producing wells in an established field to increase the production rate
Cable Tool Rig is relatively simple, had been in use for hundreds of years. An engine, originally a steam engine, and causes a wooden walking beam to pivot up and down on the Sampson Post. Cable Tool Rig is very slow (7.5m a day).
Rotary Drilling Rig = replaced the cable tool drilling rig in 1895 to 1930. Must faster (several hundreds or several thousand feet per day.)
Rotary Drilling Rig rotates a long length of steel pipe with a bit on the end of it to cut the hole called the wellbore. The rotary rig consists of four major systems=>power, hoisting, rotating and circulating systems.
Power = diesel engines. => Most power goes to the hoisting and circulating systems. Some new and on most marine rigs, a silicon-controlled rectifier is used in a diesel-electrical system.
Hoisting System = the Derrick or Mast
mast
动 支配;熟练;装桅竿
mast- (=masto-)表示“乳头, 乳房”之义(用于元音之前)
Drillstring = the turning drillpipe, bit and related equipment is called the drillstring.
Swivel = allows the drillstring below it to rotate on bearings in the swivel while the weight of the pipe is suspended from the derrick.
Kelly = below the swivel is located a very strong 4- or 6-sided, high-grade molybdenum steel pipe called the Kelly. The Kelly has sides to enable it to be gripped and turned by the rotary table. The Kelly turns all the pipe below it to drill the hole.
swivel-eyed adj. 斜视的
Rotary Table = a circular table in the derrick floor that is turned clockwise by the prime movers. If it were turned in the opposite direction, the drillpipe would unscrew.
Drillpipe = the round, heat-treated alloy steel drillpipe ranges from 5.5~14m long but is commonly 10m long. The pipe is threaded with male connections on each end. There is a female connection.
Circulating System = mod tank, mud agitator and a mud gun.
Geothermal gradient = 3.6C/100M. In OK, surface temperature = 13 C (averaged), oil in a 3km reservoir is 90 C, so it is very hot.
There are two separate pressures in the subsurface. The pressure on the rock is called earth or lithostatic pressure. The pressure on the fluids in the pores of the rock is reservoir, formation or fluid pressure.
During drilling, the pressure of the drilling mud is usually slightly higher (overbalance) than hydrostatic pressure to keep the fluids back in the rocks.
Fishing = a common drilling problem is that something breaks in or falls down the well during drilling. Fishing tools are leased from a service company to grapple for the fish in a process called fishing.
grapple
A Blowout = abnormal high pressure, an uncontrolled flow of fluids up the well. Natural gas flowing out the well can catch fire, causing the loss of the drilling rig.
A Kick = fluids flow out to the subsurface rocks into the well in what is called a kick.
Pit-volume totalizer uses floats in the mud tanks to continuously monitor and record drilling mud volume. It sounds an alarm if the mud volume decreases due to lost circulation or increases due to a kick.
Kill Mud = heavier drilling mud is pumped into the well through the choke manifold.
Directional or Deviation Drilling
1 ft = 0.3048 m
1 m = 3.2808 ft
1 mile = 1.609 km
1 gallon = 3.7854 L
tectonic [tek't/o/ nik] 形 筑造的;建筑的;构造的
foreland ['forl/&/ nd] 名 沿海地区;海角;海岸地
反义词： hinterland
fluidics [flu:'diks] 名 [单数用]应用流体学
impedance [im'p/E/ dns] 名 阻抗
impede [im'p/E/ d] 动 妨碍;阻碍;阻止
近义词： arrest; check; confine; cramp; curb; delay; hamper; hinder; inhibit; interrupt; limit; obstruct; retard
impediment [im'ped/&/ m/&/ nt] 名 妨碍;障碍;口吃
incubator ['inkj/&/ beit/&r/ ] 名 孵卵器;细菌培养器
incubate ['inkj/&/ beit] 动 抱;孵;培养;筹订;潜伏
incubatory [in'kju:b/&/ tori] 形 孵蛋的;潜伏的
incubation [inkj/&/ 'bei/ch/ /&/ n] 名 抱蛋;孵化;熟虑
cerebrum ['s/ar/ /&/ br/&/ m] 名 大脑;脑
indispensable [indi'spens/&/ bl] 形 不可缺少的
近义词： essential; necessary; needed; required; vital
反义词： dispensable
indispensable to 为…所不可缺少的
freehand ['fr/E/ h/a/ nd] 形 凭手画的;徒手画
baccalaureate [b/a/ k/&/ 'loriit] 名 学士学位
discount ['diskaunt] 名 折扣;贴现息;斟酌.折让
近义词： allow for; consider; deduct; remove; subtract; take into account
反义词： premium
know-how n. 口> 实际知识, 技术秘诀, 诀窍
volcanism ['v/ol/ k/&/ nizm] 名 火山作用[现象]
petrology [pi'tr/ol/ /&/ d/zh/ i] 名 岩石学
mineralogy [min/&r/ '/a/ l/&/ d/zh/ i] 名 矿物学
paleontology [peili/o/ n't/ol/ /&/ d/zh/ i] 名 古生物学
geomorphology [d/zh/ /E/ /&/ mor'f/ol/ /&/ d/zh/ i] 名 地形学
paleolith ['peili/&/ ] 名 旧石器
stricture ['strikt/ch/ /&r/ ] 名 狭窄;苛评;非难;拘束
striated ['straieitid] 形 有条纹的;有条痕的
escarp [is'ka:p] 名 内岸;内墙
stria ['strai/&/ ] 名 线痕;条纹;细沟
brinkmanship ['bri/ng/ km/&/ n/ch/ ip] 名 紧急致策
moratory adj. 延期偿付的
acrimony ['/a/ kr/&/ m/O/ ni] 名 严厉;辛辣
moratorium [mor/&/ 'tori/&/ m] 名 延期偿付[令]
scud [sk/A/ d] 动 轻轻地跑;轻快地飞翔;掠过..而飞
Sorry. Can't find this word in the database!
shale [/ch/ eil] 名 页岩.泥板岩
mortality [mor't/a/ l/&/ ti] 名 必死命运;死亡率
mortal ['mortl] 形 会死的;人类的;生命修关的
近义词： body; deadly; destructive; fatal; human being; individual; killing; lethal; malignant; man; person; soul
反义词： least
ore [or] 名 矿石;金属;[尤指]黄金
hinge [hind/zh/ ] 名 铰链;关键;要点;枢纽.装铰链
近义词： clasp; depend; fasten; lock; rest on; separate
breccia ['bret/ch/ i/&/ ] 名 角砾岩;角蛮岩
footwall n. 底帮, 下盘
incipient [in'sipi/&/ nt] 形 起初的;发端.初期的
近义词： beginning; initial; introductory
horst n. 地垒
immaterial [im/&/ 'tiri/&/ l] 形 非物质的;无形的
transcurrent adj. 横亘的, 横贯的,[地]横推的
dyke [daik] 名 堤;堤防;濠;障物;岩脉;女同性恋
deformation [d/E/ for'mei/ch/ /&/ n] 名 毁坏;改丑;畸形
mineralogical [min/&/ r/&/ 'l/o/ d/zh/ ikl] 形 矿物学的
oolite n. [地质]鱼卵石, 鱼卵状石灰石,鲕粒岩
devoid [di'void] 形 全无的;缺乏的
近义词： bare; blank; empty; vacant
notoriety [n/O/ t/&/ 'rai/&/ ti] 名 恶名;丑名;声名狼籍
atoll ['/a/ tol] 名 环礁
substrate n. (=substratum)底层,下层,[地]底土层,基础,本源,[生]培养基,[生化]酶作用物,[摄](胶片)感光底层
photosynthesis [f/O/ t/&/ 'sin/th/ /&/ sis] 名 光合作用
coral ['kor/&/ l] 名 珊瑚;珊瑚虫;珊瑚制品
coral-bells n. [植]珊瑚钟
encrust [in'kr/A/ st] 动 覆以皮;形成外皮;化妆
sedentary ['sednt/ar/ i] 形 坐著的;不活泼的
反义词： migratory
silica ['silik/&/ ] 名 矽石.无水矽酸;矽土
secrete [si'kr/E/ t] 动 隐秘;隐藏;隐匿;分泌
近义词： discharge; eliminate; excrete; exude
equitable ['ekwit/&/ bl] 形 公正的;正当的
近义词： due; even; fair; fit; just; proper; rightful; square
chalk [t/ch/ ok] 动 用粉笔记;白粉擦;记录 名 粉笔;白粉;记帐出售;众所珍爱的马
eyesore ['aisor] 名 看了令人不愉快的东西
eyesome adj. 媚人的, 可爱的
refuse [ri'fju:z] 动 拒绝;辞职;拒婚;向后撤退 名 残屑;渣滓的;废物的
近义词： decline; garbage; junk; litter; rebuff; reject; rubbish; rubble; trash; waste
反义词： accept
potash ['p/o/ t/a/ /ch/ ] 名 碱水
gravelly ['gr/a/ v/&/ li] 形 多碎石的;铺有碎石的
pebbly ['pebli] 形 多砾石的
placer ['pl/a/ s/&r/ ] 名 [采]冲积矿
adit ['/a/ dit] 名 入口;横坑
fleck [flek] 名 斑点;雀斑;微片
近义词： dot; mark; speckle; spot
chromium ['kr/O/ mi/&/ m] 名 铬[金属元素]
chromite ['kr/O/ mait] 名 铬铁矿;亚铬酸盐
stall [stol] 名 畜舍;陈列台;牧师职采矿场;口实 动 使失速;哄骗;进退维谷
近义词： block; booth; cell; compartment; dawdle; delay; dillydally; hinder; procrastinate
stall-fed adj. 在厩中养肥的
stall-feed vt. 在畜舍饲养使长肥
stall-keeper n. 摊贩
haulage ['holid/zh/ ] 名 拖曳;运搬;牵引量;牵引力
hydraulic [hai'drolik] 形 水力的;用水的;水力
seam [s/E/ m] 名 缝合线;接合口;伤疤;境界线 动 使起皱纹;使成波状起伏线;发生裂痕
shaft [/ch/ /a/ ft] 名 箭杆.箭;枪;锋芒;嘲讽;茎;羽轴
coalfield ['k/O/ lf/E/ ld] 名 煤田
lignin ['lignin] 名 木质素
Carboniferous [ka:b/&/ 'nif/&/ r/&/ s] 名 石炭纪[层]
subsidence [s/&/ b'said/&/ ns] 名 沈淀陷没;平息消退
peat [p/E/ t] 名 泥煤;泥煤块
peat-reek n. 燃烧泥炭以蒸馏威士忌的特殊香味
stagnant ['st/a/ gn/&/ nt] 形 淤塞的;腐败了;萧条的
近义词： dormant; inactive; inert; sluggish; static; still
oxidation [/o/ ks/&/ 'dei/ch/ /&/ n] 名 氧化
oxidant ['/o/ ks/&/ d/&/ nt] 名 氧化剂
sulfide ['s/A/ lfaid] 名 硫化物
oxide ['/o/ ksaid] 名 氧化物
anoxic adj. [医]缺氧的
merely ['mirli] 副 只是;单单;全然
近义词： barely; only; purely; simply
seep [s/E/ p] 动 渗出;渗流;漏水陆两用的吉普车
近义词： emit; excrete; ooze; trickle
rubble ['r/A/ bl] 名 粗石;破碎的砖;粗石堆;碎石堆
rubbly adj. 碎石状的, 碎石构成的
graphite ['gr/a/ fait] 名 黑铅;石墨
firedamp ['faird/a/ mp] 名 甲烷;沼气
methane ['me/th/ ein] 名 甲烷;沼气
ethane ['e/th/ ein] 名 乙烷[石油中发出的可燃气体]
propane ['pr/O/ pein] 名 丙烷[碳氢化合物之一种]
butane [bju:'tein] 名 丁烷[碳化氢的一种]
moss [mos] 名 苔藓;泥沼;泥炭地
moss-grown adj. 生苔的, 落伍的
inconspicuous [ink/&/ n'spikju/&/ s] 形 不显眼的
近义词： unnoticed; unseen
vascular ['v/a/ skj/&/ l/&r/ ] 形 脉管的;血管的
fauna ['fon/&/ ] 名 动物;动物区系;动物志
vertebra ['v/&r/ t/&/ br/&/ ] 名 脊椎骨;椎骨
chordate ['kordeit] 形 具有脊索[动物]的
vertebrate ['v/&r/ t/&/ breit] 名 脊椎动物 形 有椎骨的;有脊椎的
echinoderm [i'kain/&/ d/&r/ m] 名 棘皮动物类的动物
crustacean [kr/A/ s'tei/ch/ i/&/ n] 形 甲壳类的[动物]
trilobite ['trail/&/ bait] 名 三叶虫
chitinous ['kaitin/&/ s] 形 壳质的
arthropod ['a:/th/ r/&/ p/o/ d] 名 节肢动物[的]
phylum ['fail/&/ m] 名 门[动植物的最高分类];语系
chromosome ['kr/O/ m/&/ s/O/ m] 名 染色体
algal ['/a/ lg/&/ l] 形 [像]海藻的
translucent [tr/a/ ns'lu:snt] 形 半透明的;透明的
painstaking ['peinzteiki/ng/ ] 名 苦干;费心;苦心 形 费力的;勤勉的;不辞辛劳的;苦心的[作品]
近义词： accurate; careful; diligent; elaborate; exacting; meticulous; particular; precise; scrupulous; thorough
chert [t/ch/ /&r/ t] 名 黑矽石;角岩
filament ['fil/&/ m/&/ nt] 名 细丝.线;花丝;白热丝
cyano- [前缀]表示“蓝色, 深蓝色”之义
sewage ['sju:id/zh/ ] 名 污水;污秽物
membrane ['membrein] 名 薄膜;膜皮;羊皮纸
近义词： covering; layer; tissue
sterile ['st/ar/ /&/ l] 形 不毛的;收成不好的;呆板的 形 不含蓄的;无用的;无菌的;中性的;不生胞子
反义词： fertile
meteoroid ['m/E/ ti/&/ roid] 名 流星体
cometary [k/&/ 'met/ar/ i] 形 彗星的;彗星似的
ammonia [/&/ 'm/O/ nj/&/ ] 名 氨[气体];氨水
amino adj. [化]氨基的
amino- 表示“氨基”之义
pyroclastic adj. 火成碎屑的 n. 火成碎屑物
peridotite [p/ar/ i'd/O/ tait] 名 橄榄岩
Moho ['m/O/ h/O/ ] 名 地球外壳与不连续界线
epoch ['ep/&/ k] 名 新纪元;新时代;时期;时代;纪
近义词： age; era; period
Pleistocene ['plaist/&/ s/E/ n] 名 更新世[的]
Pliocene ['plai/&/ s/E/ n] 名 鲜新世的
Miocene ['mai/&/ s/E/ n] 名 第三纪中新世[的]
Oligocene ['/ol/ ig/O/ s/E/ n] 名 渐新世[的]
Eocene ['/E/ /&/ s/E/ n] 名 始新世[的];第三纪下层[的]
Paleocene ['peili/&/ s/E/ n] 名 [第三纪的]古新世[的]
cretaceous [kri'tei/ch/ /&/ s] 形 白垩[质]的;白垩系
Jurassic [d/zh/ u'r/a/ sik] 形 侏罗纪的;侏罗系的
Triassic [trai'/a/ sik] 形 三叠纪的
Permian ['p/&r/ mi/&/ n] 形 二叠纪的;二叠系的
Carboniferous [ka:b/&/ 'nif/&/ r/&/ s] 名 石炭纪[层]
Devonian [d/&/ 'v/O/ ni/&/ n] 名 泥盆纪[系][地层的]
Silurian [s/&/ 'ljuri/&/ n] 形 希留利亚人的
Ordovician [ord/&/ 'vi/ch/ /&/ n] 名 [古生代的]奥陶纪
Cambrian ['k/a/ mbri/&/ n] 形 Cambria的;寒武纪层
Sorry. Can't find this word in the database!
Proterozoic [pr/o/ t/&/ r/&/ 'z/O/ ik] 名 原生地;原生代的
Archean [a:'k/E/ /&/ n] 形 太古代的
eon ['/E/ /&/ n] 名 无限长的时代;永久
Hadean adj. 地狱的, 阴间的
Hadean adj. 地狱的, 阴间的
throe [/th/ r/O/ ] 动 非常苦痛;苦闷;剧痛;阵痛
planetesimal [pl/a/ n/&/ 'tes/&/ ml] 名 小行星体[的]
anorthite n. [矿]钙长石
founder ['faund/&r/ ] 名 创立者;捐出基金者;蹄叶炎 动 浸水;挫折;陷落;倒;使摔;打进泥地中
近义词： author; break down; builder; collapse; creator; fail; fall; inventor; maker; originator; producer; sink; stumble; topple; tumble
founder-member n. 创办人, 发起人
asunder [/&/ 's/A/ nd/&r/ ] 动 [分]开;碎散;离开地;分别
近义词： apart; divided; separate
反义词： together
primordial [prai'mordi/&/ l] 形 原始的;最初的
upheaval [/A/ p'h/E/ vl] 名 举起;隆起;动乱;剧变
engulf [in'g/A/ lf] 动 卷入;吸进;投[卷]入深渊
近义词： devour; flood; inundate; swallow
grandeur ['gr/a/ nd/zh/ /&r/ ] 名 壮伟;庄严;壮观;伟观
monsoon [m/o/ n'su:n] 名 季节风;其季节;雨季
近义词： storm
crescendo [kri'/ch/ end/O/ ] 副 渐次加强[音]
interlude ['int/&r/ lju:d] 名 中间[时间];插剧;插曲
近义词： break; interim; intermission; interruption; interval; pause; recess; respite
plume [plu:m] 名 羽毛;前饰;名誉的标志;羽状部 动 整理;自夸;自负;夺取;掠取;升起烟柱
plume-line vt. 用铅垂线测量, 探测
Ural ['jur/&/ l] 形 乌拉尔山脉的
Ural-Altaic n. 乌拉尔阿尔泰语群 adj. 乌拉尔一阿尔泰语群的
denude [di'nju:d] 动 使裸露;剥下;剥夺;剥蚀
batter ['b/a/ t/&r/ ] 名 [棒球]打击手;缓斜度 动 以物易物;交换;连续打;打坏
近义词： beat; mixture; pound; smash; thrash
Caledonian [k/a/ li'd/O/ ni/&/ n] 形 古苏格兰的
orogeny [o'r/o/ d/zh/ /&/ ni] 名 山岳之形成
attest [/&/ 'test] 动 证明;立证据;证实;发誓
近义词： certify; swear; testify; vouch
prodigious [pr/&/ 'did/zh/ /&/ s] 形 巨大.非凡.异常的
近义词： colossal; enormous; exceptional; extraordinary; gigantic; great; huge; immense; mammoth; marvelous; miraculous; remarkable; stupendous; vast; wonderful
straddle ['str/a/ dl] 动 两腿叉开;不明确赞成与否 名 指定价格的交易
近义词： perch
astride [/&/ 'straid] 副 跨
Baltic ['boltik] 形 波罗的海
accrete [/a/ 'kr/E/ t] 动 共生;合生;[使]附著
assemblage [/&/ 'semblid/zh/ ] 名 集合;集合物;组合
hitherto [hi/th_/ /&r/ 'tu:] 动 迄今;到此
amalgamation [/&/ m/a/ lg/&/ 'mei/ch/ /&/ n] 名 合并;联合;混合
silt [silt] 名 淤泥.[被]以淤泥塞住
precipitation [prisipi'tei/ch/ /&/ n] 名 投.落下;急速 名 突进;轻率;急救促进;沈淀[物];降水;降水量
近义词： haste; moisture; rain; rashness; snow; speed
detrital adj. 由岩屑形成的
slate [sleit] 名 板色;核准登记的候选人名单 动 用石板瓦盖上;预定;[把书等]严加批评;痛叱
slate-coloured adj. 石板色的
foliation [f/O/ li'ei/ch/ /&/ n] 名 生叶;发叶;绿叶的状态
metamorphic [met/&/ 'morfik] 形 变化的;变态的
bewildering [bi'wildri/ng/ ] 形 为难的;不知所措
rhyolite ['rai/&/ lait] 名 火山岩之一种
alkali ['/a/ lk/&/ lai] 名 碱;碱质平原;碱质平原居民
imperceptible [imp/&r/ 'sept/&/ bl] 形 不能感知的
近义词： slight; unclear; vague
反义词： perceptible
corundum [k/&/ 'r/A/ nd/&/ m] 名 刚玉;金刚砂
topaz ['t/O/ p/a/ z] 名 黄晶;黄玉;蜂雀
quartz [kworts] 名 石英
feldspar ['feldspa:] 名 长石
apatite ['/a/ p/&/ tait] 名 磷灰石
calcite ['k/a/ lsait] 名 方解石
fluorite ['flu:/&/ rait] 名 氟石
talc [t/a/ lk] 名 滑石;云母
gypsum ['d/zh/ ips/&/ m] 名 石膏
gully ['g/A/ li] 名 小峡谷;排水沟
近义词： ditch; gorge; gulch; gulf; ravine; valley
clad [kl/a/ d] .. clothe的过去[分词]
近义词： attired
flint n. 打火石, 极硬的东西, 燧石
clinometer [klai'n/o/ m/&/ t/&r/ ] 名 测斜器;倾斜仪
laceration [l/a/ s/&/ 'rei/ch/ /&/ n] 名 划破;割破;裂伤
shard [/ch/ a:d] 名 瓷器的碎片;碎片;翅鞘;外壳
splinter ['splint/&r/ ] 名 碎片;刺;破片[炮弹等的]
lichen ['laikin] 名 地衣类的植物;青苔;苔癣
smudge [sm/A/ d/zh/ ] 名 污点;脏污;为除虫而升的熏火
近义词： blacken; mark; smear; soil; spot; stain
enquiring [in'kwairi/ng/ ] 形 寻问.打听的;怀疑的
foliation [f/O/ li'ei/ch/ /&/ n] 名 生叶;发叶;绿叶的状态
riddle ['ridl] 名 粗筛;谜;不可解的人物 动 猜;筛分;细查;质问;出谜题;说谜似的话
近义词： conundrum; enigma; puzzle
ecologist [i'k/ol/ /&/ d/zh/ ist] 名 生态学者
botanist ['b/o/ t/&/ nist] 名 植物学者
layman ['leim/&/ n] 名 俗人;凡人;外行;门外汉
反义词： clergyman; priest
laypeople n. 外行,非专业人员,未担任神职的一般信徒
buoyant ['boi/&/ nt] 形 能浮的;轻快的;快活
近义词： carefree; cheerful; elastic; floating; light; lighthearted; springy
反义词： dismal; gloomy; melancholy
buoyancy ['boi/&/ nsi] 名 浮力;轻快;乐观
rubble ['r/A/ bl] 名 粗石;破碎的砖;粗石堆;碎石堆
fissure ['fi/ch/ /&r/ ] 名 裂缝;裂开;分裂;裂成缝;割
近义词： break; crack; crevice; gap; opening; split
degas [d/E/ 'g/a/ s] 动 除[抽]去瓦斯
subsidiary [s/&/ b'sidi/ar/ i] 形 补助的;从属性的
conduit ['k/o/ nduit] 名 导管;水管;沟渠;线管
fumarole ['fju:m/&/ r/O/ l] 名 喷孔[火山的]
monoxide [m/o/ n'/o/ ksaid] 名 一氧化物
chloride ['kloraid] 名 氯化物;漂白粉;消毒
sulfide ['s/A/ lfaid] 名 硫化物
magma ['m/a/ gm/&/ ] 名 岩浆;糊剂;糊
strato- 表示“层云”之义
strato-cirri n. [气]层卷云
strato-cumuli n. [气]雨积云
conical ['k/o/ nikl] 形 圆锥的;圆锥形的
Andean ['/a/ ndi/&/ n] 形 Andes山脉[中的住民]的
kink [ki/ng/ k] 动 [使]纠结;[使]纽绞 名 纽结;蜷缩;颈背处之抽筋;偏执;神经混乱
近义词： complication; curl; quirk; twist
terrane [t/&/ 'rein] 名 岩层[群]
oblique [/&/ b'l/E/ k] 形 斜的;歪曲的;恶的;转弯抹角
sideway ['saidwei] 名 边道;小巷;背胡同;人行道
rupture ['r/A/ pt/ch/ /&r/ ] 名 破裂;决裂;不和;脱肠;疝气
近义词： break; burst; crack; fracture
fringe [frind/zh/ ] 名 缘饰;前额的垂发;偏激论者
近义词： border; brim; edge; rim; trimming
asthenosphere [/a/ s'/th/ en/&/ sfir] 名 岩流圈
suture ['su:t/ch/ /&r/ ] 名 缝合;缝合处;缝合用的线
thrust [/th/ r/A/ st] 动 推刺;冲入;伸出;戳;插入;迫使
近义词： bear; drive; goad; press; prod; propel; push; ram; shove
thrust at somebody 用刀、剑等向..猛刺
crust [kr/A/ st] 名 面包皮;口粮;壳;坚硬表面
反义词： crumb
perk [p/&r/ k] 动 趾高气扬;逞能;出风头;潇洒地穿
percolate ['p/&r/ k/&/ leit] 动 过滤;使渗出;使浸透
silica ['silik/&/ ] 名 矽石.无水矽酸;矽土
manifestation [m/a/ n/&/ fes'tei/ch/ /&/ n] 名 显示;明示
basaltic [b/&/ 'soltik] 形 玄武岩[似]的
tremor ['trem/&r/ ] 名 战栗;发抖;颤声;微动;震动
近义词： quake; quiver; shaking; shiver; trembling
sulfide ['s/A/ lfaid] 名 硫化物
therapeutic [/th/ /ar/ /&/ 'pju:tik] 形 治疗的;治疗学的
geyser ['gaiz/&r/ ] 名 喷泉;间歇泉;烧水装置
近义词： fountain; gush; jet; spring; steam
gush [g/A/ /ch/ ] 名 涌出;迸发;感情等情绪
近义词： babble; chatter; flood; flow; flush; pour; prattle; spout; spurt; surge
反义词： ooze
precursor [pr/E/ k/&r/ s/&r/ ] 名 先驱者;前导;前兆
pliable ['plai/&/ bl] 形 易曲折的;圆滑的;顺从的
近义词： compliant; elastic; flexible; limber; plastic; suggestible; supple; yielding
反义词： rigid
edifice ['ed/&/ fis] 名 [大]建筑物;组织
近义词： building; construction; establishment; structure
oxidize ['/o/ ks/&/ daiz] 动 使氧化;氧化;使生锈
morphology [mor'f/ol/ /&/ d/zh/ i] 名 形态学;形态论
plume [plu:m] 名 羽毛;前饰;名誉的标志;羽状部 动 整理;自夸;自负;夺取;掠取;升起烟柱
plume-line vt. 用铅垂线测量, 探测
rift [rift] 名 裂口;隙缝;切口;失和
近义词： alienation; breach; break; cleft; crack; crevice; difference; estrangement; falling-out; fissure; fracture; gap; parting; separation; split
pathway ['p/a/ /th/ wei] 名 路;人行道
caldera [k/a/ l'd/ar/ /&/ ] 名 喷火口形盘层
harrowing ['h/a/ r/&/ wi/ng/ ] 形 痛心的;悲惨的
harrow ['h/a/ r/O/ ] 名 耙;以耙掘;使苦恼;伤害
近义词： afflict; agonize; distress; hurt; irritate; pain; plow; rake; torment; torture; wound
pumice ['p/A/ mis] 名 轻石;浮食
froth [fr/o/ /th/ ] 名 泡;泡沫;琐物;空谈;发泡;吹泡
近义词： foam; lather; rubbish; trivia
froth-blower n. 爱喝啤酒的人
pyroclastic adj. 火成碎屑的 n. 火成碎屑物
ooze [u:z] 动 渗出;泄漏;渐渐消失.渗出;沼泽地
近义词： drip; filter; flow; leak; seep
irrespective [iri'spektiv] 形 不顾的;无关的
sear [sir] 动 烧烤;打烙印;使失去感觉;使枯萎
近义词： burn; char; scorch; singe
massif ['m/a/ sif] 名 丛山;断层块
radiogenic [reidi/O/ 'd/zh/ enik] 形 由放射能产生的
thorium ['/th/ ori/&/ m] 名 钍[金属元素]
uranium [ju'reini/&/ m] 名 铀[放射性金属元素]
overburden [/O/ v/&r/ 'b/&r/ dn] 动 装载过多;负担过多
emplacement [im'pleism/&/ nt] 名 安放;定位置;位置
scathe [skei/th_/ ] 名 危害;损伤;损害.损伤;伤害
unscathed [/A/ n'skei/th_/ d] 形 没有受伤的;未受伤的
pluck [pl/A/ k] 动 采;鼓起;掠夺;使不及格;猛拉 名 内脏;勇气;鲜明度;不及格;猛拉
近义词： jerk; pick; pull; tug; yank
assimilate [/&/ 'simleit] 动 同化;比较;比喻;消化
近义词： absorb; blot up; digest; soak up
反义词： dissimilate
brittle ['britl] 形 易碎的;短暂的
近义词： breakable; crisp; fragile; frail
pastime ['p/a/ staim] 名 消遣;游戏;娱乐;遣怀
近义词： amusement; diversion; enjoyment; recreation; relaxation
enthralling adj. 迷人的
enthrall [in'/th/ rol] 动 迷惑;迷醉;迷住;奴役
近义词： captivate; charm; delight; enchant; fascinate; intrigue; thrill; titillate
cleavage ['kl/E/ vid/zh/ ] 名 劈开;分裂;劈裂性
近义词： break; division; split
biotite ['bai/&/ tait] 名 黑云母
Muscovite ['m/A/ sk/&/ vait] 名 俄国人;莫斯科的
amphibole ['/a/ mfib/O/ ] 名 角闪石
mica ['maik/&/ ] 名 云母
plagioclase ['pleid/zh/ i/&/ kleis] 名 斜长石
feldspar ['feldspa:] 名 长石
potassium [p/&/ 't/a/ si/&/ m] 名 钾[金属元素]
sodium ['s/O/ di/&/ m] 名 钠[金属元素]
peridotite [p/ar/ i'd/O/ tait] 名 橄榄岩
pyroxene ['pair/o/ ks/E/ n] 名 辉石
magnesium ['m/a/ g'n/E/ /ch/ i/&/ m] 名 镁
olivine [/ol/ i'v/E/ n] 名 橄榄石;黄绿[色]
granitic [gr/a/ 'nitik] 形 [似]花岗石的
metallic [m/&/ 't/a/ lik] 形 金属的;严厉的;冷酷的
反义词： wooden
quartz [kworts] 名 石英
silica ['silik/&/ ] 名 矽石.无水矽酸;矽土
silicate ['silikit] 名 矽酸盐
crystalline ['kristlain] 形 水晶的;透明的
igneous ['igni/&/ s] 形 火的;似火的;火成的
igneous rock 火成岩
metamorphism [met/&/ 'morfizm] 名 变态;变形;变质
preferential [pref/&/ 'ren/ch/ /&/ l] 形 优先的;选择的
fluorine ['flu:/&/ rin] 名 氟[非金属元素]
volatile ['v/ol/ /&/ tl] 形 挥发性;快活;易变的
caldera [k/a/ l'd/ar/ /&/ ] 名 喷火口形盘层
swarm [sworm] 名 群;蜜蜂群;群众;浮游的生物群 动 聚集一块;充满;攀登[树木等]
近义词： assemble; cluster; collect; crowd; gather; meet; throng
dike [daik] 名 堤;堤防;濠;障物;岩脉;女同性恋
mush [m/A/ /ch/ ] 名 浓粥;感伤的话;胆怯;伞;出租人 动 粉碎;带狗撬在雪上前进;走!
ephemeral [i'fem/&/ r/&/ l] 形 限于一日的;短暂的
gabbro n. [矿]辉长岩
batholith ['b/a/ /th/ /&/ li/th/ ] 名 底盘
massif ['m/a/ sif] 名 丛山;断层块
wavy ['weivi] 形 有波浪的;起伏的;滚动的
schist [/ch/ ist] 名 片岩
sheen [/ch/ /E/ n] 名 光辉.光彩.光泽光辉的;发光的
近义词： brightness; gleam; gloss; glow; luster; shine
zeolite ['z/E/ /&/ lait] 名 沸石
slate [sleit] 名 板色;核准登记的候选人名单 动 用石板瓦盖上;预定;[把书等]严加批评;痛叱
slate-coloured adj. 石板色的
foliate ['f/O/ lieit] 动 打成箔;加叶饰;记张数生叶
foliation [f/O/ li'ei/ch/ /&/ n] 名 生叶;发叶;绿叶的状态
agglomeration [/&/ gl/o/ m/&/ 'rei/ch/ /&/ n] 名 结块;凝结
encompass [in'k/A/ mp/&/ s] 动 围绕;包围;包含;含
近义词： encircle; enclose; include; surround
assemblage [/&/ 'semblid/zh/ ] 名 集合;集合物;组合
kyanite n. (=cyanite) [矿] 蓝晶石
limestone ['laimst/O/ n] 名 石灰石
aureole ['ori/O/ l] 名 光环;圆光;光轮;日[月]晕
andalusite n. [矿]红柱石
sillimanite ['sil/&/ m/&/ nait] 名 矽线石
splintery ['splint/&r/ ri] 形 破片的;呈锯齿状的
clot [kl/o/ t] 名 [血液等的]凝块;傻瓜;痴汉;凝结
weathering ['we/th_/ /&r/ i/ng/ ] 动 风化;泻水檐
rot [r/o/ t] 动 腐坏;堕落;开玩笑;糟蹋;虐待
近义词： crumble; decay; disintegrate; spoil
rot away 腐烂，烂掉
interglacial [int/&r/ 'glei/ch/ /&/ l] 形 间冰期的
glaciation [gleisi'ei/ch/ /&/ n] 名 冻结成冰[冰河]
bedrock [bed'r/o/ k] 名 底盘;床岩;根底;基础
outcrop [autkr/o/ p] 名 露出;露头
striation [strai'ei/ch/ /&/ n] 名 加线纹线痕;细沟
scrape [skreip] 动 磨擦;收集;挖掘;擦地而行
近义词： brush; complication; embarrassment; grate; graze; mess; muddle; pinch; plight; predicament; rub; skim; strait; trouble
scrape through 勉强通过
etch [et/ch/ ] 动 蚀刻;蚀镂..施行蚀刻法
近义词： engrave; impress; imprint; stamp
angular ['/a/ /ng/ gj/&/ l/&r/ ] 形 有角[棱]的;尖的;瘦的;笨
jaggy ['d/zh/ /a/ gi] 形 有缺口的;有锯状的;钩破的
jag [d/zh/ /a/ g] 名 锯齿状缺口;岩石突出端;小量负荷
jagged ['d/zh/ /a/ gid] 形 有缺口的;有锯状的;钩破的
chunky ['t/ch/ /A/ /ng/ ki] 形 矮矮胖胖的
abrade [/&/ 'breid] 动 擦掉;擦伤;磨损
prise [praiz] 动 用杠杆推动;撬开
abrasive [/&/ 'breisiv] 形 研磨的;磨擦的 名 研磨剂;金刚砂
strand [str/a/ nd] 名 河滨大道;一股[绳子等] 动 搁浅;拆开绳股;打
近义词： abandon; cord; desert; leave; line; string; thread
ion ['ai/&/ n] 名 离子
bicarbonate [bai'ka:b/&/ nit] 名 重碳酸盐
soluble ['s/ol/ j/&/ bl] 形 溶解的;可以解决[解释]的
反义词： unsolvable
hematite ['hem/&/ tait] 名 赤铁矿
quarry ['kwori] 名 凿石场;智识的泉源;目地物 动 凿出;挖出;苦心找出;苦心寻找
quarry-faced adj. (石料)粗面的
kaoline ['kei/&/ lain] 名 高岭土;陶土
hydrolysis [hai'dr/ol/ /&/ sis] 名 加水分解
clay [klei] 名 黏土;泥土;人体;肉体;人
imperceptible [imp/&r/ 'sept/&/ bl] 形 不能感知的
近义词： slight; unclear; vague
反义词： perceptible
detritus [di'trait/&/ s] 名 岩屑;碎岩;碎石
carbonate ['ka:b/&/ neit] 动 使成碳酸盐;碳化
quartzite ['kwortsait] 名 石英岩;矽岩
intersperse [int/&r/ 'sp/&r/ s] 动 散布;配置于各处
blob [bl/o/ b] 名 滴;小斑点;零分;溅
近义词： bubble; bulge; globule
sinuous ['sinju/&/ s] 形 弯弯曲曲的[河等];迂回的
inlet ['inlet] 名 海口;入口;通路;插入物
近义词： entrance; entry; opening; passageway
archetype ['a:t/ch/ 'taip] 名 原型
archetypal ['a:kitaipl] 形 原型的
flocculate v. 絮凝, 絮结
alluvial [/&/ 'lu:vi/&/ l] 形 冲积的;冲积期的;冲积土
estuary ['est/ch/ u/ar/ i] 名 [大河的]河口;江口
levee ['levi] 名 君王的接见;[君主]早晨接见 名 总统的招待会;冲积堤;河川的堤防;码头
piece [p/E/ s] 名 片;块;个;例子;工作;一份;货币 名 作品;炮;枪;棋子;人;家伙;点心;玩牌;性交 动 继续;连接;修补;结合;吃点心
近义词： bit; division; part; portion; section; segment; share
piece together 拼合，拼凑在一起
piece up 修补
coroner ['kor/&/ n/&r/ ] 名 验尸官;原持有者
moraine [m/O/ 'rein] 名 堆石
imbrication [imbri'kei/ch/ /&/ n] 名 瓦[鳞]状重叠
pebble ['pebl] 名 鹅卵石;水晶[透镜];玛瑙;粗面
laminate ['l/a/ m/&/ neit] 动 制成薄板;制成箔
sculpt [sk/A/ lpt] 动 雕刻;造形
plaster ['pl/a/ st/&r/ ] 名 胶泥;熟石膏;膏药 动 涂满;贴膏药;出医药费;赔偿;用石膏处理
entrain [in'trein] 动 使乘火车
trench [trent/ch/ ] 动 切;皱起;渠沟;开畦沟;掘;耕
近义词： channel; ditch; dugout; foxhole; moat
turbid ['t/&r/ bid] 形 混浊的;泥水的;浓的;紊乱的
crescent ['kresnt] 名 新月;月形街巷;土耳其国 形 新月的;逐渐生长的;逐渐增加的
crescent-shaped adj. 新月形的
lee [l/E/ ] 名 下风;背风;下风处;庇护下风的
saltation [s/a/ l'tei/ch/ /&/ n] 名 飞跃;跳跃;突变;急变
silt [silt] 名 淤泥.[被]以淤泥塞住
clastic ['kl/a/ stik] 形 碎片性的
detrital adj. 由岩屑形成的
hospitable ['h/o/ spit/&/ bl] 形 招待周到的
近义词： amiable; cordial; friendly; generous; gracious; neighborly; receptive; inhospitable
amoeba [/&/ 'm/E/ b/&/ ] 名 阿米巴;变形虫
plankton ['pl/a/ /ng/ kt/&/ n] 名 浮游生物
ubiquitous [ju:'bikw/&/ t/&/ s] 形 到处存在的;遍在的
ubiquity [ju:'bikw/&/ ti] 名 到处存在;耶稣的遍在
longitude ['l/o/ nd/zh/ /&/ tju:d] 名 经度;经线;纵;长
反义词： latitude
latitude ['l/a/ t/&/ tju:d] 名 纬度;纬线;黄纬;地域 名 自由;行动;宽容度;[行动的]范围;程度;宽度
反义词： longitude
replenishment [ri'pleni/ch/ m/&/ nt] 名 补给;补充
replenish [ri'pleni/ch/ ] 动 再灌满;再补足;补充
近义词： furnish; provide; supply
anhydrite [/a/ n'haidrait] 名 硬石膏;无水石膏
halite ['h/a/ lait] 名 岩盐
gypsum ['d/zh/ ips/&/ m] 名 石膏
inorganic [inor'g/a/ nik] 形 无组织的;非有机性的
dolomite ['d/ol/ /&/ mait] 名 白云石;白云石山脉
calcite ['k/a/ lsait] 名 方解石
fibrous ['faibr/&/ s] 形 纤维的;纤维性的
mat [m/a/ t] 名 垫;草帘;鞋擦;细目;纠葛物;褪色 动 编织;使纠缠;无光泽的;褪色的
近义词： cover; rug
arid ['/a/ rid] 形 乾燥的;乾透的;枯燥无味的
近义词： dry; dull; flat; stuffy; unimaginative
mangrove ['m/a/ /ng/ gr/O/ v] 名 红树林
marsh [ma:/ch/ ] 名 沼泽;沼地;湿地
temperate ['temprit] 形 温暖的;温和;节制的
近义词： calm; gentle; mild; moderate
反义词： intemperate
shelly ['/ch/ eli] 形 多壳的;壳一般的;由壳而成的
obliterate [/&/ 'blit/&/ reit] 动 涂去;擦去;忘却
近义词： blot out; delete; demolish; destroy; erase; wipe out
deduce [di'dju:s] 动 推论;演绎;推寻源流.脉络
反义词： induce
( 26 ) displacement
displacement [dis'pleism/&/ nt] 名 换置;移动;免职
burst [b/&r/ st] 动 破裂;充满;突然;一阵
近义词： broken; exploded
burst forth 突然发生；突然爆发
burst into 闯入；突然发作
burst into laughter 突然笑起来
burst out 大声叫喊
burst out laughing 突然笑起来
burst up 爆炸；失败；突然发怒
burst upon 突然来到
burst-up n. 失败, 破产
sojourn ['s/O/ d/zh/ /&r/ n] 名 逗留;旅居;寄居
近义词： stay; stopover
encroach [in'kr/O/ t/ch/ ] 动 侵入;侵害;侵蚀
近义词： break in; infringe; interfere; intrude; trespass
burrow ['b/&r/ /O/ ] 名 洞穴;隐藏处;掘洞;穴居;探索
近义词： dig; excavate; hunt; search; seek; tunnel
agitate ['/a/ d/zh/ /&/ teit] 动 搅动;动摇;骚动;使兴奋
近义词： disturb; excite; incite; inflame; instigate; provoke; stir up
反义词： calm; compose; quiet; soothe
calcareous [k/a/ l'k/ar/ i/&/ s] 形 石灰质的;钙质的
northward ['nor/th/ w/&r/ d] 动 向北;向北的;朝北的
isle [ail] 名 岛;[尤指]小岛
funnel ['f/A/ nl] 名 漏斗;漏斗形物;集中;注入
近义词： channel; pipe; siphon
seawards ['s/E/ w/&r/ dz] 副 朝海的方向;向海地
scour [skaur] 动 拭磨.洗涤;擦拭使之光亮
近义词： buff; clean; massage; polish; rub; scrub; shine; wash
discharge [dis't/ch/ a:d/zh/ ] 动 起.卸货;发射;解放 动 出院;退伍;解雇;排放;漂白;渗;执行;取消
近义词： dismiss; dump; expel; fire; let go; release; unload
反义词： charge
discharge-key n. [电工]放电键
streak [str/E/ k] 名 条理;层;性格;情况;味道;期间 动 加条纹;变成条纹;闪电般发亮[奔驰]
近义词： characteristic; element; line; mark; nature; quality; score; strain; striate; stripe; tendency; vein
boom [bu:m] 动 忽然兴隆;大事宣传 名 响声;蜂等的振翅声;暴涨
近义词： advance; beam; flourish; gain; grow; increase; pole; progress; roar; rumble; swell; thrive; thunder
反义词： slump
boom-and-bust n. 经济繁荣与萧条之交替循环
flip [flip] 动 用指头弹;轻轻拂打;忽然摇动跳动 名 香甜烫酒;一次的飞行
近义词： cast; flick; fling; hurl; jerk; pitch; sling; snap; throw; toss
flip-flop n. 后滚翻, 噼啪(声) adv. 连续啪啪作声地
flip-latch 锁存器
fiery ['fai/&/ ri] 形 火的;燃烧的;炯炯的;热列的 形 易怒的;猛烈的;易发火的[气体];发炎的
近义词： ardent; burning; excited; fervent; feverish; flaming; heated; hot; violent
fiery-footed adj. 敏捷的
fiery-hot adj. 火热的, 太热心的
fiery-red adj. 火红的
outpost ['autp/O/ st] 名 前哨;前哨部队;前哨地点
tryout ['traiaut] 名 甄别考试;试验;尝试;预赛
snag [sn/a/ g] 动 阻桡;断枝;剪枝;缺牙;牙根;暴牙
近义词： catch; hook; snare; snatch; trap
bravado [br/&/ 'v/o/ d/O/ ] 名 作威;虚张的勇气
defiant [di'fai/&/ nt] 形 挑战的;反抗的;大胆的
snatch [sn/a/ t/ch/ ] 动 抓;夺;匆忙地做;带走;抢救出 名 诱拐;碎片;短暂的时间
近义词： bit; clutch; grab; grasp; hook; scrap; seize; shred; snag; snare; trap
imam [i'm/o/ m] 名 回教之祭师[导师]
recap [r/E/ 'k/a/ p] 动 烧再生橡胶修补
aplenty adj. 丰富的 adv. 丰富地
lignite ['lignait] 名 褐煤
tally [t/a/ li] 动 附以标签;总结;对照 名 符木;一致;酷似品;帐;计算单位;标签
近义词： agree; calculate; check; coincide; compute; correspond; count; estimate; figure; list; match; reckon; score
detractor n. 诽谤者, 恶意批评者
topsy-turvy adv. 颠倒地, 乱七八糟地 adj. 颠倒的
近义词： chaotic; confused; inverted; jumbled; reversed; upside-down
lexicon ['leksik/&/ n] 名 辞典;语汇
collegiate [k/&/ 'l/E/ d/zh/ iit] 形 大学[的学生]的
eponymous [e'p/o/ nim/&/ s] 形 名祖的
chamber [t/ch/ eimb/&r/ ] 名 室;会议场;便壶;窝 动 作房间用;关在室内;上膛
近义词： compartment; room
commerce ['k/o/ m/&r/ s] 名 商业;通商;贸易;交易.交际
近义词： business; trade
inhabit [in'h/a/ bit] 动 居住;栖息;占据
近义词： dwell; live; lodge; occupy; reside; room; stay
反义词： desert
feisty adj. 易怒的, 活跃的
tribute ['tibju:t] 名 贡物;纳贡义务;表感谢之辞
近义词： compliment; contribution; donation; eulogy; glorification; laudation; praise; subscription
inlet ['inlet] 名 海口;入口;通路;插入物
近义词： entrance; entry; opening; passageway
outlet [autlet] 名 出口;销售对象;销路;插座
反义词： inlet
socket ['s/o/ kit] 名 承受口;插座;眼睛等窝;腔;孔
Socket 网络应用程序接口
TCP/IP提供的网络API（应用程序接口）主要是Socket，在TCP/IP中主要采用了客户机/服务器的模式，Socket就是为这种模式而设计的，针对客户机和服务器分别提供了不同的系统调用，利用这些调用，客户机可以随意申请一个Socket，系统就为它分配一个Soc
litigation ['lit/&/ 'gei/ch/ /&/ n] 名 诉讼;起诉
plaintiff ['pleintif] 名 原告
dwindle ['dwindl] 动 减;变瘦;变小;缩小;衰落
近义词： decline; decrease; diminish; lessen; shrink; subside; waste away
stymy ['staimi] 名 [高尔夫]妨碍球;妨碍;阻挠
bequest [bi'kwest] 名 遗赠;遗产;遗赠物
disruptive [dis'r/A/ ptiv] 形 使分裂的;分裂性的
perseverance [p/&r/ s/&/ 'vir/&/ ns] 名 耐性;固执
clinch [klint/ch/ ] 动 敲弯;使钉牢;解决;扭住;拥抱
近义词： bind; cinch; establish; fasten; grip; hold; insure; make certain; seize; tie; wrap
writ [rit] 名 令状;文件文书
近义词： notice; order; warrant
plexiglas ['pleksigl/a/ s] 名 塑胶玻璃
cynical ['sinikl] 形 爱嘲笑的;冷笑式的;讥诮的
denigrate ['den/&/ greit] 动 使变黑;玷污;辱名
lash [l/a/ /ch/ ] 名 鞭条;皮条;冲击;痛打;刺激;使激昂
近义词： beat; blow; flog; hit; strike; whip
lash-up adj. 应急的 n. 应急的东西, 计划, 俚>失败, 一团糟
bludgeon ['bl/A/ d/zh/ /&/ n] 名 棍棒;棒打;欺负;吓
competency ['k/o/ mp/&/ t/&/ nsi] 名 胜任;资格;能力
robin ['r/o/ bin] 名 知更鸟
porridge ['porid/zh/ ] 名 麦片粥;粥
gruel ['gru:/&/ l] 名 [供给病人的]稀粥;使极度疲劳
millet ['milit] 名 稷;栗;玉蜀黍之类
hearsay ['hirsei] 名 风闻
近义词： gossip; rumor
keg [keg] 名 小桶;钉子的重量单位
tabloid ['t/a/ bloid] 名 小型报;小型画报;药片 形 扼要的
cameo [k/a/ mi/O/ ] 名 贝壳等上所刻的浮雕
sketch [sket/ch/ ] 名 素描.略图;草稿;大要;小品文
sketch out 草拟；概略地叙述
petit ['peti] 形 小的;没价值的;无用的
petite [p/&/ 't/E/ t] 形 [petit的女性形]小的
vintage ['vintid/zh/ ] 名 葡萄收获期;葡萄酒
disinformation [disinf/&r/ 'mei/ch/ /&/ n] 名 假情报
artillery [a:'til/&/ ri] 名 大炮[兵;学];小型武器
反义词： arms; small
incursion [in'k/&r/ /ch/ /&/ n] 名 侵入;侵略;奇袭;流入
intricate ['intr/&/ kit] 形 纷乱的;复杂的;纠缠的
近义词： complex; complicated; confused; involved; perplexing
反义词： plain; simple
intricately ['intr/&/ kitli] 副 纷乱地;复杂地
culprit ['k/A/ lprit] 名 犯人;罪犯;刑事被告
近义词： offender; sinner; wrongdoer
covet ['k/A/ vit] 动 妄想;垂涎;贪;妄羡
近义词： crave; desire; envy; lust; want
nab [n/a/ b] 动 捉住;逮捕[犯人等];抢法
stem [stem] 动 阻止;抵抗;发出;制动 名 干茎;字根;血脉船首;轴;管;脚;上发条;制动
反义词： stern
stem from 起源，发生
stem-winder n. 以转钮上发条的手表
stem-winding adj. 以转柄上发条的
consensual [k/&/ n'sensju/&/ l] 形 在两愿下成立的
allegation [/a/ l/&/ 'gei/ch/ /&/ n] 名 申述;主张;陈述
Stoic ['st/O/ ik] 名 斯多亚学派哲学家;禁欲主义者
extortion [ik'stor/ch/ /&/ n] 名 硬要;强夺来的东西
sodomy ['s/o/ d/&/ mi] 名 鸡奸;兽奸
deliberation [dilib/&/ 'rei/ch/ /&/ n] 名 熟虑;熟思;协议
acquit [/&/ 'kwit] 动 开释;释放;免除;还清[债务]
近义词： absolve; cleanse; discharge; excuse; forgive; pardon
反义词： arrest; capture; catch
intrigue [in'tr/E/ g] 名 阴谋;密谋;策划;奸情
近义词： amour; conspiracy; love affair; plot; romance; scheme
raft [r/a/ ft] 名 多数;筏;妨碍流行的流木;浮冰 动 编成筏子;用筏子渡过;乘筏;使用筏子
pediatrics [p/E/ di'/a/ triks] 名 小儿科
pediatrician [p/E/ di/&/ 'tri/ch/ /&/ n] 名 小儿科医师
proclaim [pr/&/ 'kleim] 动 公告;声明;公开以表扬
近义词： advertise; announce; declare; herald; publicize; voice
deluxe [d/&/ 'luks] 形 高级的;豪华的
mezzanine ['mez/&/ n/E/ n] 名 中层楼;舞台下面;包厢
wedge [wed/zh/ ] 名 楔子;高尔夫的十号铁杆
近义词： jam; lodge; push; squeeze
cadet [k/&/ 'det] 名 军校学生;候补军官
snap [sn/a/ p] 动 咬;折断;怒骂;骤变;煎饼
近义词： break; burst; crack; seize; snatch; split
snap at 厉声说；急促地说
propensity [pr/&/ 'pens/&/ ti] 名 倾向;爱好;习性;癖
confound [k/&/ n'faund] 动 使混淆.混乱.狼狈;推翻
近义词： baffle; bewilder; confuse; mystify; perplex; puzzle; stump
resiliency [ri'zili/&/ nsi] 名 弹回;弹性;愉快
Welsh [wel/ch/ ] 名 威尔斯[人;的;语]
welsh [wel/ch/ ] 动 逃避[债务;责任]
assuage [/&/ 'sweid/zh/ ] 动 和缓;镇静
近义词： allay; alleviate; calm; check; ease; lessen; moderate; pacify; quiet; relieve; restrain
predicament [pri'dik/&/ m/&/ nt] 名 状态;困局;范畴
近义词： complication; dilemma; embarrassment; mess; pinch; plight
ouster ['aust/&r/ ] 名 放逐;侵占[财产等];不法夺取
uphold [/A/ p'h/O/ ld] 动 支撑;保证;确认;拥护;辩护
近义词： bolster; confirm; corroborate; maintain; substantiate; support; sustain
反义词： subvert
leaflet ['l/E/ flit] 名 小叶;嫩叶;摺叠的印刷物
reverence ['rev/&/ r/&/ ns] 动 尊敬;崇敬
diehard n. 顽固分子
bittersweet ['bit/&r/ sw/E/ t] 名 又苦又甜的东西
hiatus [hai'eit/&/ s] 名 裂缝;脱落;母音连续
ophthalmologist [/o/ f/th/ /a/ l'm/ol/ /&/ d/zh/ ist] 名 眼科医师
oculist ['/o/ kj/&/ list] 名 眼科医生
ophthalmology [/o/ f/th/ /a/ l'm/ol/ /&/ d/zh/ i] 名 眼科学
gynaecologist [gain/&/ 'k/ol/ /&/ d/zh/ ist] 名 妇科医生
gynaecology [gain/&/ 'k/ol/ /&/ d/zh/ i] 名 妇科医学
obstetrician [/o/ bste'tri/ch/ /&/ n] 名 产科医师
obstetrics [/&/ b'stetriks] 名 产科学
metropolitan [metr/&/ 'p/ol/ /&/ tn] 形 首都的 名 首都居民;大都市市民;大主教
近义词： city; civic; municipal; urban
hike [haik] 动 徒步旅行.使劲移动;加价徒步旅行
近义词： march; parade; tramp; walk
dissent [di'sent] 动 与意见不同;提异议;不服从
近义词： differ; disagree; take exception
反义词： assent; consent
acerbic [/&/ 's/&r/ bik] 形 酸涩的;尖锐的;刻薄的
undercut [/A/ nd/&r/ k/A/ t] 名 牛腰部下侧嫩肉;切球 动 廉价出售;较便宜的工资工作;从下边切球
jurisdiction [d/zh/ uris'dik/ch/ /&/ n] 名 裁判权;各种权
legislative ['led/zh/ isleitiv] 形 立法.有立法权的
remedy ['remidi] 名 医疗;救济对策;矫正法;公差
近义词： correct; cure; doctor; fix; heal; rectify; treat
blockbuster ['bl/o/ kb/A/ st/&r/ ] 名 破坏性强的炸弹
court-martial n. 军事法庭 vt. 交军事法庭审判
justice ['d/zh/ /A/ stis] 名 正义;公平;正当;当然的
反义词： injustice
avenue ['/a/ v/&/ nju:] 名 林荫路;林荫道;大路;门径
ruling ['ru:li/ng/ ] 名 统治;判决;划格;格线 形 支配的;主要的;优势的有力的;一般的平均的
tribunal [trai'bju:nl] 名 法官[推事]席;法院
近义词： board; council; court; forum
jot [d/zh/ /o/ t] 名 少量;少额;稍许
empathize v. 移情, 神会
immersion [i'm/&r/ /ch/ /&/ n] 名 浸入;浸洗;洗礼;热衷
etiquette ['etiket] 名 礼仪;礼节;礼貌;成规
近义词： manners
ministry ['ministri] 名 牧师.部长之职长;服侍
renown [ri'naun] 名 名声;声望
adieu [/&/ 'dju:] .. 再见!一路平安!告别;辞别
oddity ['/o/ d/&/ ti] 名 奇异;奇妙;奇特;怪人;奇人
patina ['p/a/ tin/&/ ] 名 绿锈;绿青;古色;古翠;古雅
pomp [p/o/ mp] 名 华丽;壮观;盛典;华丽的游行;虚饰
近义词： display; exhibition; magnificence; ostentation; pageant; show; sight; spectacle
manse [m/a/ ns] 名 牧师住宅
croon [kru:n] 动 低声歌唱;低唱;低吟低唱;低吟
近义词： hum; sing; vocalize
shag [/ch/ /a/ g] 名 粗毛.绒毛;绒布;板烟的一种
ceramic [s/&/ 'r/a/ mik] 形 陶器的;陶制的
daisy ['deizi] 名 雏菊.法国菊;第一流;薰火腿肉
Daisy ['deizi] 名 女子名
rev [rev] 名 发动机的转数
metaphor ['met/&/ f/&r/ ] 名 隐喻
emphatic [im'f/a/ tik] 形 语调强的;用力的;强调的
intangible [in't/a/ nd/zh/ /&/ bl] 形 不可触知的;无形的
近义词： unsubstantial; untouchable
反义词： tangible
rave [reiv] 动 胡说八道;狂言;叫嚷;狂暴;咆哮
rave-up n. 喧闹的宴会, 狂欢聚会
splay [splei] 动 做成外宽内狭;开成扇形;使脱臼 形 外宽式的;不成体统的;喇叭式开口
crevasse [kri'v/a/ s] 名 裂缝;破口;崩溃处
sectarian [sek't/ar/ i/&/ n] 形 宗派的;党派心强的
platoon [pl/&/ 'tu:n] 名 排;一组;团;警官的一队
torso ['tors/O/ ] 名 躯干;未完成的[不完整的]作品
magistrate ['m/a/ d/zh/ istreit] 名 长官;县长;推事
近义词： judge
annihilate [/&/ 'nai/&/ leit] 动 绝灭;消灭;废止
近义词： abolish; demolish; destroy; end; wreck
vibrant ['vaibr/&/ nt] 形 震;战栗的;强壮的
fortuitous [for'tju:/&/ t/&/ s] 形 偶然的;意外的
反义词： intentional
resourceful [ri'sorsf/&/ l] 形 富于想像.机智的
近义词： adept; clever; cunning; deft; ingenious; skillful; smart
scud [sk/A/ d] 动 轻轻地跑;轻快地飞翔;掠过..而飞
moratorium [mor/&/ 'tori/&/ m] 名 延期偿付[令]
acrimonious [/a/ kr/&/ 'm/O/ ni/&/ s] 形 严厉的;辛辣的
brink [bri/ng/ k] 名 边缘[峭壁等的];水边
autonomous [o't/o/ n/&/ m/&/ s] 形 有自治权的;自律的
escarpment [is'k/o/ pm/&/ nt] 名 悬崖;断崖;绝壁
striation [strai'ei/ch/ /&/ n] 名 加线纹线痕;细沟
splay [splei] 动 做成外宽内狭;开成扇形;使脱臼 形 外宽式的;不成体统的;喇叭式开口
crevasse [kri'v/a/ s] 名 裂缝;破口;崩溃处
sectarian [sek't/ar/ i/&/ n] 形 宗派的;党派心强的
platoon [pl/&/ 'tu:n] 名 排;一组;团;警官的一队
torso ['tors/O/ ] 名 躯干;未完成的[不完整的]作品
magistrate ['m/a/ d/zh/ istreit] 名 长官;县长;推事
近义词： judge
annihilate [/&/ 'nai/&/ leit] 动 绝灭;消灭;废止
近义词： abolish; demolish; destroy; end; wreck
vibrant ['vaibr/&/ nt] 形 震;战栗的;强壮的
fortuitous [for'tju:/&/ t/&/ s] 形 偶然的;意外的
反义词： intentional
payload n. 有效载荷
subdued adj. 屈服的, 被抑制的, 柔和的, 减弱的
saturation [s/a/ t/ch/ /&/ 'rei/ch/ /&/ n] 名 浸透;浸润;彩度
pinch [pint/ch/ ] 动 捏;使憔悴;使缺乏;逮补;节俭 名 偷窃;搜捕;危急情况
近义词： nip; press; squeeze; tweak
pinch-hit vi. 紧急时代打球
pinch-runner n. [棒]（关键时刻上场的）替补跑垒员
Pliocene ['plai/&/ s/E/ n] 名 鲜新世的
pitchout [pit/ch/ aut] 名 投手故意投的坏球
volumetric [v/ol/ j/&/ 'metrik] 形 测定体积[容积]的
reconnaissance [ri'k/o/ n/&/ s/&/ ns] 名 搜察;勘察队
paleo- 表示“古, 旧”之义
outline [autlain] 名 外形;轮廓;略图;概要;概论
近义词： chart; contour; diagram; draft; drawing; pattern; plan; profile; skeleton; sketch
prospect ['pr/o/ spekt] 名 眼界;眺望;景色;期待 动 探勘;试掘;找;有希望的
反义词： retrospect
embayment [im'beim/&/ nt] 名 湾状之物;形成港湾
traverse ['tr/a/ v/&r/ s] 动 横过;铭刻于心;妨害;跋涉 名 横贯;[测]割线;炮口旋转
superimpose [su:p/&/ rim'p/O/ z] 动 重叠;加上去;双重
borehole ['borh/O/ l] 名 地上凿穿孔
concomitantly [k/&/ n'k/o/ mit/&/ ntli] 副 附随地
Paleozoic [peili/&/ 'z/O/ ik] 形 古生代的
Mesozoic [mes/&/ 'z/O/ ik] 名 中世代
rhomboid ['r/o/ mboid] 名 偏菱形;长斜方形
spud [sp/A/ d] 名 小锄头;剥取树皮用的刀;马铃薯
configuration [k/&/ nfigj/&/ 'rei/ch/ /&/ n] 名 结构;形态
Configuration 配置
aspen ['/a/ sp/&/ n] 名 白杨[似的];摇晃的
limestone ['laimst/O/ n] 名 石灰石
lay out 花费；布置；摆开
Jurassic [d/zh/ u'r/a/ sik] 形 侏罗纪的;侏罗系的
Ordovician [ord/&/ 'vi/ch/ /&/ n] 名 [古生代的]奥陶纪
mississippian [mis/&/ 'sipi/&/ n] 形 mississippi的
Triassic [trai'/a/ sik] 形 三叠纪的
obscuration [/o/ bskju'rei/ch/ /&/ n] 名 黑暗化;暧昧化
accentuate [/a/ k'sent/ch/ ueit] 动 重读;极力主张
meander [mi'/a/ nd/&r/ ] 名 河流的曲折;漫步;迂回旅行 动 缓慢而弯曲地流动;漫谈
近义词： stray; twist; wander; wind
meandering [mi'/a/ nd/&r/ ri/ng/ ] 名 曲径;漫步;漫谈 形 曲折的;漫步的;聊天的
arcuate ['a:kjuit] 形 弧形的;弓形的
splinter ['splint/&r/ ] 名 碎片;刺;破片[炮弹等的]
Pleistocene ['plaist/&/ s/E/ n] 名 更新世[的]
lignite ['lignait] 名 褐煤
Permian ['p/&r/ mi/&/ n] 形 二叠纪的;二叠系的
troll [tr/O/ l] 名 轮唱;轮唱歌;轮转线钓鱼法;拟饵
prominent ['pr/o/ m/&/ n/&/ nt] 形 突起.显眼.著名的
近义词： celebrated; distinguished; eminent; famous; great; important; outstanding; popular; well-known
反义词： anonymous
splay [splei] 动 做成外宽内狭;开成扇形;使脱臼 形 外宽式的;不成体统的;喇叭式开口
crevasse [kri'v/a/ s] 名 裂缝;破口;崩溃处
distributary [di'stribjut/ar/ i] 名 支流
bar [ba:] 名 染;妨害;禁止;反对;除..之外 名 棒;闩;线条;法院;节线
近义词： ban; block; counter; exclude; forbid; obstruct; pole; prohibit; rod; saloon; shut out; stick; tavern
bar-and-grill n. 美> 烤肉酒店, 烤肉酒吧
bar-b-q barbecue 蒙古烤肉
Pleistocene ['plaist/&/ s/E/ n] 名 更新世[的]
meander [mi'/a/ nd/&r/ ] 名 河流的曲折;漫步;迂回旅行 动 缓慢而弯曲地流动;漫谈
近义词： stray; twist; wander; wind
sinkhole ['si/ng/ kh/O/ l] 名 阴沟的入口处;排水口
furcate ['f/&r/ kit] 形 叉形的;分岐的;成枝的
bifurcate ['baif/&r/ keit] 动 分[成]叉
crater ['kreit/&r/ ] 名 火山口;喷火口;弹坑;巨爵座
Devonian [d/&/ 'v/O/ ni/&/ n] 名 泥盆纪[系][地层的]
pervade [p/&r/ 'veid] 动 扩散;蔓延;普及;充满;渗透
近义词： fill; overrun; penetrate; permeate
coalesce [k/O/ /&/ 'les] 动 合并;联合;接合;愈接
discern [di'z/&r/ n] 动 分别;识别;找出;认识;领悟 [d
