The Origin, Development and Future of Scientific Thinking
(Study on the Characteristics and Differences of Chinese and Western Scientific Thinking)
In the philosophical and scientific circles, there is a saying that modern science originated in the West because Westerners are good at pursuing the general principles and laws behind things. The Western view of scientific thinking, or the principle of scientific thinking, is to respect personal privacy and property, and to create and maintain one's own wealth and interests. This principle drives the inventions and creations of Westerners to represent the most advanced civilization in the world. On the other hand, the Chinese have no scientific thinking at all. All inventions and discoveries are for the sake of eating, drinking, and having fun, without scientific principles. So, is it really so?
The fact is: using the development status of modern science and technology and the specific form of modern science and technology to illustrate that Westerners have scientific thinking, which is a kind of short-sighted thinking and thinking tumor; ignoring the forward-looking scientific thinking of the Chinese people, and what they have done to modern science. Fundamental contribution is a huge obstacle to the development of modern science and technology and future science and technology; the development of modern science and technology is actually based on a series of Chinese inventions and discoveries; the facts of modern science and technology are Chinese scientific thinking and Western scientific thinking crystallization and fusion. The traditional Western science is just a process of constantly denying its own assumptions and then correcting them, and it is a kind of progressive scientific thinking. This paper expounds the respective characteristics of the Chinese Science of Heaven and the Western Science of Mechanics through the form of comparison, and analyzes the unique scientific thinking mode of the Chinese people and the differences and the future of the scientific thinking mode from several aspects.
Let's start with the origin of the word "science".
Although ancient China had a well-developed scientific and technological civilization, there was no such a word as "science" to include astronomy, mathematics, geography, physics, chemistry, medicine, agriculture and other knowledge. In the late Ming Dynasty, Western science was introduced into China. It was not until the beginning of the 20th century that China established the use of "science" to represent science in English. Before this, there was also a term in Chinese academic circles that expressed the same meaning: "Gezhi Zhixue". In Japanese, the word "science" appeared in the early Meiji era as a translation, and it understood science in the sense of "study of disciplines". At the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, with the introduction of a large number of Japanese scientific books, especially after the abolition of the imperial examination and the introduction of a new education system, "science" gradually replaced "Gezhi". At the beginning of the 20th century, the name of scientific journals no longer used the word "Gezhi", but mostly used the name of "science".
Before the 18th century, the obscure Western sciences had not been separated from philosophy, but only resided in natural philosophy. When the late Ming philosopher and natural scientist Xu Guangqi (April 24, 1562 - November 8, 1633) met with Italian Jesuit Matteo Ricci (October 6, 1552 - May 11, 1610) When studying Western academics, he translated Western natural philosophy as "The Study of Gezhi (Material)", abbreviated as "Gezhi", "Gewu", or "Gezhi (Material) Study", "Gezhi (Material) Study". Xu Guangqi said: The knowledge described by Matteo Ricci can be divided into two categories: one is the religious knowledge of self-cultivation, and the other is the natural knowledge of learning from things.
The origin of the phrase "gaining knowledge from objects" is very ancient. It was first seen in the Confucian classic "Great Learning" (composed from the end of the Warring States Period to the beginning of the Western Han Dynasty). Scholars of the past dynasties have different interpretations of its meaning, and they can't agree. Later, Zhu Xi (October 22, 1130 - 1200), a master of Neo-Confucianism in the Southern Song Dynasty, put forward a new explanation: "The so-called knowledge is to examine things, and words want to convey my knowledge. It is the thing and the reason is exhausted." Although it is mainly from the perspective of moral cultivation, it also has the meaning of inferring knowledge from the things themselves. Xu Guangqi understands "learning by examining things" in the latter sense, so he uses it to translate "natural philosophy", which is later "science". Appropriate and elegant, the term was widely spread in the Ming and Qing dynasties. From this analysis alone, the Chinese people's research on natural sciences is thousands of years earlier than that of the West.
The definition of science in the modern "Ci Hai" is: a knowledge system that reflects the nature and laws of various phenomena in the real world by using categories, theorems, laws and other ways of thinking. According to different research objects, it can be divided into natural sciences, social sciences and formal sciences (science of thinking), as well as philosophy and mathematics that cover and run through the three fields. Scientism refers to a trend or movement in epistemology and philosophy of science. Scientism believes that natural science is real scientific knowledge, and only the methods of natural science can be effectively used to acquire knowledge, which can be extended to all fields of research and solve various problems faced by human beings. Scientism pursues instrumental rationality, ignores value rationality, extrapolates the concepts and methods of natural science without restriction, and regulates social science and thinking science, which goes against the spirit of science. Obviously, this explanation is modern, but it is still based on the ancient Chinese explanation of "learning from objects". It's just that most of us have been brainwashed by Western-style mathematics, physics and chemistry education in modern universities, and have not read and studied the theoretical basis of ancient Chinese science and understood the core ideas.
How advanced was ancient Chinese science?
Ancient China is the only ancient country with 8,000 years of Chinese civilization. It has both a broad and profound ideological and cultural system, as well as a highly developed material civilization, especially some high-tech ancient China, which may completely subvert the cognition of modern people, and even be considered as a Technology of the ancient century (legacy of the last wave of human civilization). Give a few simple examples.
1. The bronze swords unearthed from the Mausoleum of Qin Shihuang and the "Goujian Sword of Yue King" unearthed in Hubei in 1965 both use the advanced technology that only appeared in modern times - the oxidation treatment method of chromium salts. Germany in 1937, the United States in 1950 has invented this process and applied for a patent.
2. As early as the Warring States period in 200 BC, China had invented drilling technology. At that time, China's drilling was not for oil, but for the salt we eat every day. The Chinese have learned to cook salt with sea water thousands of years ago, but in the interior of China, salt is a very precious thing. China's drilling technology did not spread to Europe until the 11th century. In order to obtain Chinese drilling technology, various European countries traveled thousands of miles to China to seek advice and bring this technology to the West.
3. The Dujiangyan Water Conservancy Project built in the Warring States Period more than 2,000 years ago is a representative work of ancient Chinese engineering, and no one has surpassed it so far. The World Heritage Committee evaluated Dujiangyan as the oldest and only remaining grand water conservancy project in the world so far, characterized by no dam diversion. According to the prediction of water conservancy experts, the most advanced water conservancy projects in developed countries have a service life of only 300 years. Dujiangyan has been used for more than 2,000 years, and it is still intact and functioning.
As for other aspects, such as "Shen Nong's Materia Medica", "Mengxi Bi Tan", "Tian Gong Kai Wu", "Qi Min Yao Shu", "Compendium of Materia Medica", "Nine Chapter Arithmetic", "Nongzheng Quanshu", "Gan Shixing" The Classic of Internal Medicine, the Yellow Emperor's Internal Classic, the Siku Quanshu, etc., are all technological advances that readers can basically understand in general, so I won't talk about them. In different dynasties (especially the Han, Tang, Song, and Ming dynasties), China has developed different levels of science and technology, with different emphases and different scientific and technological achievements. The characteristics of this technological development were related to the war, economy, and territorial development, cultural development, and international trade at that time. But there is one point, the development of science and technology is inseparable from the accumulation of various technologies and capital in the early stage, and at the same time, it also needs the encouragement and support of the government.
Why is modern China's science and technology "backward"?
The "backwardness" mentioned here is just a modern mode of thinking of some people. The "backwardness" of Chinese science and technology in modern times (mainly the Qing Dynasty and the period of the Republic of China) is compared with the "advanced" European science and technology. This does not mean that Chinese science and technology have not developed in modern times. Due to being isolated from each other for a long time, China and Europe independently developed their own science and technology, thus forming their own science and technology traditions and theories. For example, Wei Yuan's "Map of the Kingdom of the Sea" of the Qing Dynasty; the "General Examination of Imperial Timing" and "Guangqunfang Spectrum" of the Qing Dynasty; Emperor Kangxi ordered Bai Jin, De Manuo and others to survey and map the whole country, which took ten years to complete, and was named after Emperor Kangxi. It is the "Pureview of Emperor Yu", which is the first map in China to be surveyed and mapped with latitude and longitude; during the period of the Republic of China, China established a modern academic system (about 600 years later than the West); during the period of the Republic of China, China discovered the Pekingese skull; China's first aircraft designer, "Oriental Wright" Feng Ru (January 12, 1884 - August 25, 1912) and so on. These are all major scientific and technological advances in the Qing Dynasty and the Republic of China.
The outstanding feature of the ancient Chinese science and technology system is its extremely strong practicality, which directly meets the needs of all aspects of the ruling dynasty in a centralized society. China's practical science and technology system actually reached its peak, that is, its limit, during the Song, Yuan and Ming Dynasties (10th to 15th centuries). There are only two paths for Chinese traditional science and technology to advance by leaps and bounds in the Qing Dynasty: either fundamentally change the practical characteristics, or transform the social structure so that it can open up space for the development of science and technology. But both paths were not feasible at the time. The scientific tradition is part of the entire national culture, and it is impossible to completely change it. If there is no huge historical change (such as the many brutal and bloody wars in modern Chinese history), big changes are impossible. Especially in the late Qing Dynasty, the most important thing in China was not to develop science and technology (agricultural civilization was already very developed), but to maintain national stability and rule (this was related to government management and legal system, and also to the national policy at that time).
On the other hand, the rise of modern science was accompanied by and closely related to the growth of European capitalism, especially the entry of capital and the generation of patent rights. Modern theoretical science and applied science are closely combined and mutually accelerated, and science and technology promote each other. The democratic system compatible with the capitalist mode of production and freedom of thought, speech, and scientific research have liberated the constrained creativity of intellectuals and cleared the way for the development of science. At the same time, the reason why China did not produce modern science similar to that of the West (such as the invention and creation of various machines and the discovery and establishment of principles and laws) was because China did not have all the decisive conditions for the production of modern science in Europe (such as war and plunder). In a word, the Chinese people's thinking is affected by the lack of progress and innovation because of their wealth and stability, or descriptions such as "subsistence and lust", "how can the central country follow the barbarian land" and so on. This conclusion is based on people's definition and positioning of modern technology, but it does not mean that China is "backward" in all fields of science and technology.
Since the sense of order and the sense of movement are the two strongest sensory experiences that human beings get from nature, the development of human civilization has always been a balance between orderism (naturalism) and movementism (liberalism). Comparatively speaking, the stronger continuity of the Huaxia civilization and the larger scope of the "Tianxia" settled civilization than other civilizations is obviously due to the greater role played by orderism. China has been able to regain its unity after each fragmentation, apparently because the containment of activism is stronger. A side effect of this tendency to emphasize order over movement is that it is difficult to develop a system similar to Western science. All the achievements of ancient Chinese science and technology are limited to the scope and scale that does not constitute a fundamental challenge to the order of "the world".Every ancient civilization has its rationality and inevitability, and none of them can be simply denied. Taking the success or failure of Western science as the only criterion to judge the pros and cons of civilization is at least shallow, perhaps intentional. Because Western science is mechanical science, it cannot solve all problems. Even with war and plundering, it is still not the end of human society, just like Europe and the United States that are constantly at war. From the perspective of human existence, the science of heaven and nature is higher than that of mechanical science; from the perspective of human life, wealth, freedom, private property, convenience, speed, precision, and respect are Mechanical science seems to be higher than Tiandao science (but not necessarily, continue to analyze later).
The fundamental difference between western science and ancient Chinese science
The first thing to say is that the philosophical guiding ideology of modern science and ancient science is different. In fact, the scientific thinking and scientific methods adopted are different. The ancient Chinese science of the Dao of Heaven embodies oriental thinking, that is, deductive reasoning. "Deductive reasoning" is a general-to-special reasoning method, as opposed to "inductive reasoning". Western science is dominated by Western thinking, mainly inductive reasoning. The connection between the inference premise and the conclusion is inevitable, and it is a kind of affirmative inference. Inductive reasoning is a kind of reasoning from the specific to the general. Transition from a certain degree of viewpoints about individual things to a wider range of viewpoints, and deduce general principles and principles of explanation from specific and specific cases. This is the main difference between Chinese and Western scientific thinking.
Specifically, Zhang Heng in the Han Dynasty (78-139 AD), who invented the armillary sphere and the seismograph, was a scientist, astronomer, and writer, with many outstanding talents. He is humble and pays attention to morality. He said: "One does not have to worry about not being honorable, but should worry about not being noble." Why does Zhang Heng care so much about "morality"? What does this "morality" have to do with scientific research? Only when a person is recognized by the universe, the universe will reveal the deep mysteries to him. "Cultivating the mind" is the premise and foundation for exploring the deep mysteries of the universe. Ancient Chinese science took such a shortcut. This is the core idea of ??Chinese Tiandao science (Tao of Heaven).
Western science emerged after the general moral decline of mankind. The pursuit, deception, war and plunder full of interests behind its development process further make the overall morality of human beings lower and lower. The ancient gods were the gods of nature, the way of heaven. God shows the mysteries and truths of the universe only to those who believe in God and have high morals. However, Western science does not believe in the Tao of Heaven, slanders the Tao of Heaven, does not pay attention to morality, and even corrupts morality. No matter how sophisticated its instruments appear, no matter how much resources are spent, the door to revealing the deep mysteries and truths of the universe is closed to "mind-blind" Western science. People who have become "mind blind" due to their disbelief in the Way of Heaven and their moral decline are not qualified to come into contact with the real mysteries and truths of the universe. This is why Western science has established so many principles, laws, etc., which are always in a cycle of being verified, overturned, re-verified, and overturned. This is the main principle and practical result of Western mechanical science. Just think about it: Tai Chi and I Ching, why haven't they been overthrown?
Another example is quantum theory. The yin-yang and five-element theory that appeared 8,000 years ago is the most advanced theory and the fundamental law of the universe. It has already explained the mysteries of relativity and quantum mechanics. What is Taoism? The idea that the Tao produces all things actually reveals the essence of the birth of the universe, that is, matter is born from the laws of physics. Before birth, there was nothing but the Tao, the laws of physics. This is concretely described by the uncertainty principle of quantum mechanics in Western science. In layman's terms, the uncertainty principle states that the smaller the time interval, the greater the energy uncertainty. In Western science, at the end of the 19th century, people discovered that the old classical theories could not explain microscopic systems, so many physicists (Max Karl Ernst Ludwig Planck, Albert Einstein, Niels Henrik David Bohr, Louis Victor·Duc de Broglie, Werner Heisenberg, Wolfgang Ernst Pauli, Paul Adrien Maurice Dirac, Enrico Fermi, Max Born, Satyendra Nath Bose, Erwin Rudolf Josef Alexander Schrödinger, etc.), to create quantum mechanics in the early 20th century to explain these phenomena. In fact, different interpretation methods also reflect the differences in the way of thinking.To sum it up in a simple sentence, the ancient Chinese science of the Dao of Heaven is mainly empirical, and practice produces true knowledge, which is based on observation and understanding of the Dao of Heaven; Western science is positivism, which combines experiments and mathematics to demonstrate science, which is based on the facts of observation and calculation. . Western science, or Western mechanical science, is merely verifying China's Tiandao (Tao of Heaven) science one by one. This "one by one" will take time, including the understanding and interpretation of traditional Chinese medicine.
What is modern science?
Modern science is the fusion and crystallization of Chinese Tiandao science, Western mechanical science, and science from all over the world. What exactly is Western mechanical science?
Precise experimentation is the cornerstone of Western mechanical science. Entering the era of precise clocks, it is possible to explore the precise measurement of the mysteries of time and space. Matteo Ricci (October 6, 1552 - May 11, 1610), an Italian missionary who visited China in the Ming Dynasty, did present two self-ringing bells to Emperor Wanli, but they were regarded as rare toys by Long Live. There are no clocks among the four great inventions in ancient China. The most "accurate" inventions in ancient China are the armillary sphere and the seismograph (the heaven and earth are all in one), and according to the judgment standard of Western science, they are not so "accurate". To put it simply, inaccuracy is knowing when you will die, how you will die, the cause of death, the result of death, and the reincarnation of heaven; precision is knowing when you will die, where you will die, what your blood pressure and blood sugar will be when you die, and how you will breathe when you die. and heart rate, funeral costs and cremation scenarios after death, etc. This is the essential difference between Western mechanical science and Chinese Tiandao science.
Western mechanical science mainly includes the following four aspects:
1. Scientific spirit: think and dare to open the back cover of the watch to observe the inside;
2. Scientific thinking: put forward various theoretical assumptions about internal mechanical principles;
3. Scientific method: observe internal mechanical devices, accurately measure mechanical motion, and compare with theoretical assumptions in mind;
4. Scientific progress: Overthrow previous theories and put forward new hypotheses. By repeating 3 and 4, the theory and practice are constantly approaching agreement.
It can be seen that Western mechanical science is not a simple matter. It must start from abnormal thinking and extraordinary courage, and must go deep inside. In the 18th century, Kant (April 22, 1724 - February 12, 1804) proposed that human beings should "dare to know" (Sapere Aude) (Dare to Know). People today would find it commonplace, but it was an earth-shattering slogan at the time. China's ancient mathematics, ancient astronomy, traditional Chinese medicine, the four great inventions, etc. are very advanced, but no matter which field, they have not exceeded the stage of fuzzy science considered by modern science, that is, the stage behind the guessing of the dial. On the other hand, although the most accurate Western mechanical science, its basic principle is still the Chinese Tiandao science. After all, in practice and application, Western mechanical science is a visible existence, and the development of human society and changes in life are obvious to all. Yes, but the pros and cons are another matter.Is the fast-paced lifestyle based on Western mechanical science the sadness of mankind or the hope of mankind? Chaplin (April 16, 1889 - December 25, 1977) used "Modern Times" to deduce the process and results of this Western mechanical science. Modern people are definitely reluctant to return to the era without machinery, but modern people are very longing for a lazy life. Scientific inventions have found that the ultimate goal is to live a comfortable life, but the comfortable life of the past two or three hundred years has come at the cost of the spread of various diseases, the proliferation of various drugs, the high divorce rate, the endless war, and the constant natural and man-made disasters! Because many people (including presidents, prime ministers, presidents, governors, etc.) do not know that they need to learn the way of heaven and improve their spiritual realm.
Yuval Harari (February 24, 1976 - present) summed up the difference between Western science (not all modern science) and ancient science (especially Chinese Tiandao science) in "A Brief History of Humanity". Three unique characteristics: 1. Willingness to admit one's ignorance; 2. Centered on observation and mathematics; 3. Acquiring new abilities. Obviously, these three items are all subversive changes in people's thinking and concepts, and it is difficult for them to happen suddenly in a mature modern society. It is most likely to happen (especially capital and war) only when the already ignorant Western barbarian society is looking at the new world with its eyes wide open and eager to acquire the ability to conquer it. Western civilization is just based on pirate civilization and plundering culture. Therefore, Westerners have invented and discovered a series of theories and laws about nature based on the accumulation of ancient technology.
In terms of scientific theory, or philosophy of science, Bacon in England (22 January 1561 - 9 April 1626) and Descartes in France (31 March 1596 - 11 February 1650) Two people, who have made indelible contributions to the construction of Western scientific theories, are the foundational figures. Bacon put forward the principle of experiment, Descartes put forward the principle of mathematics, and these two together become Western natural science. People who study science actually learn two things, one is to do experiments, and the other is to express them with mathematical formulas. It can be said that Bacon and Descartes are the Western natural sciences, and the two are the founders of Western natural sciences. This is the brainwashing system of almost all the educational models of universities, middle schools and primary schools in China, and it is also the brainwashing system of almost all educational models in the world. From the very beginning, Western civilization established its own so-called knowledge system from both archaeology and history, and then through religion and war, it promoted their theoretical system to the world, including the Western legal system and Western mechanical science (such as the New Deal, constitutional government, Christianity, evolution, Mr. De, Mr. Sai, anarchism, Marxism, pragmatism, etc.), etc., the ultimate goal is still capital and profit.
Based on the "Book of Mountains and Seas" and the great geographical discoveries of the Song Dynasty (Southern Song Dynasty "Maps"), China made seven consecutive large-scale ocean voyages from 1405 to 1433 in the early Ming Dynasty, and discovered Europe, America, Oceania, Africa and Antarctica. However, in traditional college and secondary education, we have been taught that the 16th century was a century of great geographical discoveries, of colonialism, and of the Reformation, which gave rise to new theological ideas. In the 16th and 17th centuries, the West pioneered modern natural science. Engels (November 28, 1820 - August 5, 1895) said: "This is the greatest revolution the earth has ever experienced". However, the Ming and Qing dynasties were different from the policies of mercantilism and the development of domestic and foreign trade implemented by the feudal governments of Western European countries during the same period. They adopted a policy of restraining and stifling the development of the commodity economy and the germination of capitalism in the south of the Yangtze River. From the 16th to the 17th century, Chinese natural science started to lag behind the West. The main reason was that China's capitalist mode of production did not develop, and there was no call for modern natural science from the rapid development of social production.At the same time, the cultural absolutism policy implemented by the decadent Ming and Qing dynasties also seriously hindered the development of natural science. However, based on the theory of modern Western natural science, atomic bombs, missiles, guns, automobiles, airplanes, pesticides, fertilizers, hormones, drugs, chemical drugs, chemical preparations, etc. have appeared successively. Do these represent advanced productive forces? Why do many rich and powerful people prefer to live in seclusion in the mountains, eat wild food, and stay away from the complicated modern social life and modern commercialized food?
In terms of scientific research methods, Western scientists mostly use the methods of observation and experiment, as well as the method of mathematical logic derivation. Leonardo da Vinci (April 23, 1452 – May 2, 1519) said: "Science is useless if it does not arise out of practice and with a clear experimental result, because experiment is certain Mother of Sex". Galileo Galilei (February 15, 1564 - January 8, 1642) was called "the father of modern natural science" by later generations, not only for his scientific inventions and discoveries, but more importantly for his Contributions to scientific research method. Because since then, modern natural science research methods and their steps have basically followed the path he pioneered. However, where is the end of modern natural science? After physics discovered elementary particles, it finally fell into the theory of quantum science and returned to Chinese Tiandao science. Chemicals and drugs After decades of discovery and development, it is found that the effectiveness of chemicals and drugs is only temporary, a temporary benefit obtained from a destruction of nature (think herbicides, pesticides, drugs) , and finally fell into the category of environmental protection and the unity of human being and nature.
The same is true of Western medicine. The originator of Western medicine, Hippocratic (460 BC-370 BC), said: Let food be your medicine, and medicine should be your food; even a doctor cannot cure a disease that cannot be cured by food. . However, the development of Western medicine for nearly a hundred years has violated this principle, leading to the spread of various diseases, drug abuse, and even the new crown virus. Some people say that the scientific method of Westerners is very advanced and logical, that is, inductive reasoning. Induction or inductive reasoning, sometimes called inductive logic, is the process of reasoning in which the premises of an argument support the conclusion but do not ensure the conclusion.It ascribes properties or relationships to types, based on limited observations of particular tokens, or formulates laws based on limited observations of patterns of recurring phenomena. This often leads to wrong conclusions. Modern Western medicine has taken a path of fighting against diseases, and is keen on synthetic drugs. Because the guiding ideology is wrong, it also goes against the thought of Hippocrates, the originator of Western medicine, and has not solved all the problems of human diseases. The West is only now starting to remember that Chinese medicine is still great!
The basic conditions for the emergence of modern science
Modern science is based on thousands of years of Chinese inventions, including Chinese mathematics and wisdom; of course, it also includes inventions from other countries in the world. But the explosion of modern science did come from the West (don't deny the Chinese people's contribution in this process), and there are only two reasons for it: war and finance, that is, plunder and wealth. China has always possessed wealth and did not plunder it, so it was a central power until finally, it was invaded by the West. Adam Smith (June 5, 1723 - July 17, 1790) questioned why China's economy was stagnant in the late 18th century (the period when The Wealth of Nations was written) and why China did not pay attention to foreign trade. He wrote: “China has been one of the richest countries for a long time. However, it seems to have been stagnant for a long time.Its cultivation, industry and large population as described by Marc Polo (15 September 1254 – 8 January 1324) who visited it more than 500 years ago are almost exactly the same as those described by today's travelers, perhaps China. Long before the time of Marco Polo, it had attained the fullest degree of opulence its laws and institutions would allow. "It is worth noting that whether the ancient Egyptians, Indians or Chinese did not encourage trade with foreign countries, they all seemed to have gained enormous wealth from inland shipping. In today's world, China is engaged in internal circulation and reunification. The market seems to have the same taste. As for the Belt and Road Initiative, the original intention is good, but will the West let it go?
On the other hand, Westerners started to develop modern science from war and finance, because they woke up from war and understood the wealth brought by powerful technology. Needham (December 9, 1900 – March 24, 1995) pointed out that, until the late Middle Ages, the West had not learned three Chinese technologies: water-proof tanks, the use of coal, and paper money. Although papermaking and printing had become popular and fueled the Renaissance, the West lacked the basic conditions for widespread use of paper money: a unified government and finances. The great voyages of the West arose in the 15th century in two competing nations: Portugal and Spain. In 1487, Dias, funded by the Portuguese king, bypassed the Cape of Good Hope, the southernmost tip of Africa, and discovered the Indian Ocean route. In 1492, Columbus set out westward with the letter of credentials from the Queen of Spain to the Chinese emperor and the Indian rich man, and discovered the New World of America. Since then, history has begun to turn pages. As everyone knows, China has discovered America and Africa as early as the Song Dynasty (February 4, 960 - March 19, 1279), not Zheng Chenggong of the Ming Dynasty (August 27, 1624 - 1662). June 23, 2009), but one thing is consistent, that is, China does not want to destroy the way of heaven and colonize other countries. The great Western voyages found a huge amount of American gold and silver, which triggered a series of chain reactions in Europe.There was a "price revolution" and then an "interest rate revolution". Nominal and real interest rates have generally declined, usury has been expelled from the stage of history, and the financing costs of commerce and manufacturing have been greatly reduced, creating favorable conditions for the Industrial Revolution. More important, however, is the "financial revolution" that laid the foundations of the modern fiscal and financial system. Undoubtedly, the entry of finance and capital, coupled with navigation and war, will definitely have a decisive role in promoting scientific development, because capital is profitable. In a word: The direct driving force for the start of modern Western science is the great geographical discovery of the West and the colonial war in the West. The dominant ideas are colonization and plunder. Of course, the supremacy of the interests and rights of the Western ruling groups is also an important factor in promoting the start of Western modern science. In contrast, the supreme interests and rights of the ruling clique in the Ming and Qing Dynasties were mainly plundered from the people, and their external expansion was relatively small.
What is the modern scientific way of thinking?
The obvious deficiency of the western way of thinking in mechanical science is that it only pays attention to the part but not the whole, and simplifies, mechanizes or formulates complex problems. And the fact is: every law or law is a conditional existence. In the 19th century, the modern Western mechanical science made great strides, and the universal connection and evolutionary characteristics of the objective world were gradually revealed. In contrast, from the 19th century to the beginning of the 20th century, in the long-term technologically advanced China, officials were busy making profits and the common people were struggling to make a living. The main problem of Chinese society was not science itself, but how the country would function in an orderly manner; at the same time, The scientific thinking of Chinese scholars is limited by national development and social system. Of course, some people have raised objections: although modern science originated in the West, the entire natural sciences are the result of the common progress of China and the West. If we look at history as a whole, it is a bias in the development of society caused by war, and the original intention of scientific research at the beginning is precisely to serve the war, which is the door of modern science! The second is wealth and profit.
The scientific way of thinking in the modern West is very purposeful from the beginning, which is for capital and profit. With the accumulation of wealth and the progress of society, pure theoretical research, including university education and research, appeared later. Since the middle of the 20th century, with the continuous growth of the demand for professional talents in economic development, the voice of higher education system reform has become increasingly louder. In order to comply with this trend, many European countries have adjusted the traditional organizational structure of universities through legislative and fiscal reforms, and these adjustments have had an important impact on the operation system of higher education and the power of professors.
The so-called logical thinking means that our way of thinking must conform to the three basic principles of logic: the law of identity, the law of excluded middle and the law of contradiction. Hu Shi (December 17, 1891 - February 24, 1962) advocated the educational spirit of the academy and gave some praise to the academic methods of Song Confucianism and Qing Confucianism. Japan-June 1, 1952)'s "Empirical Thinking Technique" and the "Five-step Teaching Method" were organically integrated to fit the Chinese way of thinking. Hu Shi combined Dewey's five steps into three steps: carefully search for facts, boldly put forward hypotheses, and then carefully seek evidence. This is a theory that is closest to Western scientific thinking in modern China. Scientific thinking can be divided into theoretical, experimental and computational thinking. Empirical thinking, logical thinking and computational thinking have their own characteristics, all thinking is a mixture of these three kinds of thinking, the proportion of which will be different, but there is no pure empirical thinking, logical thinking and computational thinking, this classification is for the convenience of research.
In fact, the foundation of modern Western science is not logic. The essence of science is incomplete induction, which is logically untenable (conclusions drawn through reasoning are not necessarily correct). Fundamentally speaking, why things in the future should obey the same laws or forms as the past is entirely an assumption derived from trial and error experience, without any logical support. Modern Western science can be said to be a system based on axioms, and a set of axioms is obtained by induction of reality; a theoretical system is established on top of it, and then reality is predicted. If there is a discrepancy, there are several possibilities: 1. There is an undiscovered entity within the theoretical system, so it is detected through the prediction of the entity (such as the discovery of Neptune). 2. If the axiom system is imperfect or wrong, try to make predictions by modifying the axiom system. Theories (or hypotheses) with credibility are all falsifiable, and there is never any confirmation (mostly perjury), or some are just a sophistry that is more in line with the reality. Therefore, the so-called method of Western science is confirmation, which is a wrong understanding.
Modern Western science is based on experience and phenomena. Modern Western scientific thinking, after a series of hypothetical reasoning and research results, has found that in the end it is still necessary to find solutions and ultimate answers from the source. After Western scientific research entered the theory of quantum mechanical relativity, the way of thinking of scientific research began to change, from analytical thinking to this pragmatic macroscopic overall system logical thinking. This is actually the beginning of moving closer to the 8000-year-old Chinese philosophical thinking, which is the basis for the revival of Chinese culture and the development of Chinese science and technology (will be further analyzed later). Western mechanical science, it is only in recent years that they have begun to understand the greatness and power of Chinese Tiandao science, and have begun to learn and understand Chinese Tiandao science!
The Historical Significance of the Technological Revolution
In any case, the development of Western scientific thinking is of progressive significance, and the Western scientific and technological revolution has indeed changed our lives. The scientific revolution is a great change in science that can lead to profound changes in the concept of human life; the technological revolution is a great change in technology that triggers profound changes in the mode of production of human beings; the industrial revolution generally refers to the major changes in the industrial structure of the national economy due to major technological breakthroughs, which in turn make A new look has emerged in all aspects of the economy and society.
Since the development of human civilization, there have been five technological revolutions, all of which occurred in the West. The first scientific and technological revolution was probably in the 16th and 17th centuries, and its symbol was the birth of modern science. The manifestations of this technological revolution include Copernicus, Galileo, and Newtonian mechanics. The second technological revolution in the middle and late 18th century was marked by the steam engine and mechanical revolution. The third scientific and technological revolution was in the middle and late 19th century, marked by the revolution of internal combustion engine and electric power, with the emergence of internal combustion engine, electric motor and telecommunication technology. The fourth scientific and technological revolution was from the middle and late 19th century to the middle of the 20th century, represented by evolution theory, relativity theory, quantum theory, etc. The fifth scientific and technological revolution was in the middle and late 20th century, marked by the invention of electronic computers and information networks, and manifested in the emergence of electronic technology, computers, semiconductors, automation and even information networks. Among them, each revolution is the accumulation of ancient science and technology, and it is not generated out of thin air.
According to the research on the history of science and technology, the above five technological revolutions include two scientific revolutions and three technological revolutions. The criteria for judging the technological revolution mainly include three aspects: the scientific revolution should significantly change the thinking and concepts of human beings; the technological revolution should mainly significantly change the production and way of life of human beings; the influence rate and coverage rate of the above two should exceed 50%. That is to say, the ancient sciences of the major civilizations in the ancient world, either developed independently or inherited from other civilizations, have reached a high level, and some achievements are close to modern science, but they still lack the external resources needed to go further. conditions (i.e. war and capital). Therefore, in this sense, in terms of failing to transfer to modern science, all ancient sciences are actually not superior or inferior, nor can we talk about progress or regression. Only through continuous technological revolution can science be further developed. This in itself is the spirit of science. For example, quantum communication technology, quantum chip technology, maglev technology, solid rocket engine, Stirling engine, etc. Today, China is in a leading position in the world, because modern China has always survived under the suppression of war and capital, which is also war and external conditions of capital.
The five scientific and technological revolutions include a series of major technological innovations and promote a series of weapon innovations. The weapon system and war form of international warfare have undergone three changes, including from cold weapon warfare to artillery warfare, to semi-mechanized and From mechanized warfare, to semi-informatized and informatized warfare; the strategic goals of international warfare have changed three times, from "power to control the city" to "power to control the sea", then to "power to control the air", and then to "power to control credit". In this series of wars, China has learned survival skills; Westerners do not understand Chinese wisdom. The more the West suppresses, the more China progresses, because China has the scientific principles of the Chinese Heavenly Dao that have been traditional for thousands of years; it is only a matter of time before it surpasses the West. This is the upcoming sixth technological revolution.
The sixth scientific and technological revolution is a scientific revolution led by China and accompanied by a technological revolution. Its theory comes from "Book of Changes", "Tao Te Ching" and "Huangdi Neijing", and will undergo great changes in medicine, biology, physics, chemistry, computer, economics, sociology, state management, etc. , especially in technological innovations in the fields of new energy, new materials, rocket technology, quantum communication, chip technology, environmental protection, medical diagnosis, health and longevity, etc., leading the world. In the next 20-30 years, it will gradually appear in front of us, we will wait and see.
Fuzzy Science and Exact Science
This article analyzes the theories and connotations of Chinese and Western sciences from two different perspectives. The first is ancient fuzzy science (Chinese Tiandao science) and modern precise science (Western precision science), and the second is Chinese holographic science and Western mathematical science.
Wikipedia believes that the origin of science can be traced back to ancient Egypt and the Mesopotamia from about 3500 BC to 3000 BC. But ignore the earlier scientific history of Chinese civilization. The Chinese civilization has a long history, extensive and profound, and has a history of more than 8,000 years (it has been confirmed by a series of major archaeological discoveries and multidisciplinary comprehensive studies since the 21st century). The reason why ancient science is ancient fuzzy science is that the ancient fuzzy thinking and the limitations or biases of the development of mathematics (science) and rationality (chemistry) are based on the observation and understanding of nature. War and looting.
Western science can usually be divided into three branches, namely formal science (science of thinking), natural science, and social science. Each branch includes a variety of specialized and overlapping scientific disciplines, often with their own nomenclature and expertise. The reason why Western science is modern precision science is that its biggest feature is precise thinking and mathematical logic, especially the emergence of computers.
With the change of social practice and the development of science and technology, human's way of thinking has experienced a spiral circle of negation and negation, such as ancient fuzzy thinking-modern deterministic thinking-modern scientific fuzzy thinking. The relationship between ambiguity and certainty is an ancient and important issue in epistemology. On the surface, Chinese holographic science is based on the scientific form of ancient fuzzy science, but in fact it has also experienced the above-mentioned spiral circle of negation. In fact, fuzzy thinking, that is, chaotic thinking, is one of the most basic scientific theories of modern technology, and "holography" improves and optimizes "fuzziness". In recent decades, the Chinese scientific community has combined ancient Chinese science with modern precise science to form the latest Chinese holographic science, which has forward-looking and epoch-making significance.
Western mathematical science is a science based on precise thinking and mathematical logic. The French mathematician and philosopher Descartes (March 31, 1596 - February 11, 1650) first pushed mathematical arguments and explanations as absolute laws to all disciplines, laying the foundational position of mathematics in science. This kind of science has nothing to do with Chinese medicine, Yi Xue, Yin-Yang and the Five Elements, etc. In fact, mathematical thinking is only a branch of human thinking. Modern (precise) science also includes the science of thinking that takes the existence of human thinking as the object, not only the psychology, mind, brain nerves, brain waves, and brain space, but also the relationship between man and man, man and heaven. In China's holographic science, the research is very thorough. For example, the "Book of Changes (Yi Jing,Yi Ching)" shows the thinking model of the human brain (top-level correct), but Western mathematical sciences do not have it.Yi Ching thinking is a dialectical thinking method that is based on image thinking, supplemented by logical thinking, and uses multiple means of induction and deduction to describe and analyze things. The fundamental of the Book of Changes is the number of images. The root of the number of images is the analogy. The number of elephants is the root, and the principle of accounting is the flower and fruit. The image is the root, the number is the foundation, the reason is the flower, and the account is the fruit. The Yi Ching thinking not only includes the "induction method" and "deduction method" as the main thinking methods, but also includes the "analogous thinking, image-like thinking" and "interaction thinking, mutual transformation thinking" as the core thinking model. A very complete system of thinking is China's holographic science.
As for the difference between holographic science and mathematical science, it is equivalent to macro science and micro science. Holographic Science (Holographic Science) is based on the theory of easy to learn. Quan Zong is both theoretical material science and applied science. It is not only the study of general holographic theory, but also the study of holographic phenomena and holographic laws in all scientific fields. The core of the holographic theory, the main body and the integrated scientific system is the universe holographic unity theory. It is optical holography, holographic subjugation and bio-holographic technology. The most thorough and basic principle of holographic theory is: from the perspective of the sum of latent and explicit information, any part contains all the information of the whole. In short, part and whole holographic. The holographic unification theory of the universe, which has been called the holographic grand unification theory, has the core idea and the main point of view: the universe is a unified whole with holographic connection between various parts.In the universe as a whole, the holographic correspondence between the subsystems and the system, and between the system and the universe, the parts that correspond to each other are more similar in terms of material, structure, energy, information, spirit and function than the non-corresponding parts of the universe. larger. It can be said in layman's terms that all things have the four-dimensional holographic nature of time and space, between the parts of the same individual and the whole, between things at the same level, between different levels and food in the system, the beginning and the result of things, the great development of things. There is a mutual holographic correspondence between the process and the small process. Each part contains other parts, and it is also contained in other parts at the same time. Matter generally has memory, and things always try to copy new things according to the patterns existing in their own memory; holography is a differentiated holography.
Mathematical sciences, derived from Japanese, represent mathematics and the application fields of mathematics, mathematics including mathematical statistics and related academic fields, that is, mathematical sciences. In addition to mathematics, also include those subjects that are primarily mathematical in nature, but may not be generally recognized as subfields of mathematics. We often talk about learning mathematics, physics and chemistry, but in the field of natural sciences, mathematics is not included, and there is no mathematics award for the Nobel Prize. But mathematics is indeed the foundation of natural science, and Western science is based on mathematical models (including philosophy, of course). In the 16th century, the modern scientific paradigm of mathematical experiments established by Newton defined science as the mathematical experimental science represented by Newton, that is, Western modern science. Anyone who has studied mathematics knows that any mathematical law has conditions. The same goes for physics and chemistry. Because these laws or principles are only for a certain point, not holographic.
The Future of Scientific Thinking and Scientific Development
Under the trend of Western-centrism, many people still believe that Chinese culture has no universality and objectivity, and thus assert that there is no science in China. In fact, starting from different ways of thinking and learning systems, the meaning, scope and level of universality are also different. Since the 20th century, the first-class philosophers and scientists in the West have recognized the limitations of conceptual thinking in Western mechanical science, and have a soft spot for traditional Chinese culture and the science of heaven. At present, due to the "objectivity" problem caused by the separation of nature and man and the duality of subject and object in the West, as well as the environmental pollution and ecological damage caused by the value neutrality of science, the West has begun to explore the possibility of the unification of subject and object. The introduction of value into science has become a topic of concern in the philosophy of science. This is the idea of ??the unity of nature and man, and it is also the beginning of the awakening of Western science. With the development of systems science and cognitive science, Western scientific thought has also begun to move from atomic composition theory to generative holism. All these are pushing the West to try to surpass empirical science and explore the path of practical science. After a hundred years of silence and reflection, the Xiang thinking in Chinese Tiandao science will surely reappear on the stage of history with a new look, making due contributions to the future development of human culture and science.
Image thinking refers to the way of thinking that uses images, symbols and other tools with intuition, image and sensibility to reveal the essential laws of cognition of the world, so as to construct a unified mode of the universe. Xiang thinking regards the natural laws of the universe as unified, corresponding, similar, and interactive, with the help of Taiji diagram, yin and yang five elements, gossip, sixty-four hexagrams, Hetu Luoshu, Heavenly Stems and Earthly Branches and other symbols and figures. It constructs a model of the universe of all things, with distinct integrity and holographic nature. Xiang thinking is based on the image of things, starts from the image and analogizes the laws of things, and uses the "image" as a thinking model to explain, deduce, and simulate the existence, structure, and movement laws of all things in the universe. , dynamic research, with great universality and inclusiveness. Xiang thinking is the dominant thinking of Chinese culture, the source of originality, the mother of originality, and the thinking that asks and discovers problems. The formation of TCM related theories largely originates from Xiang thinking. "Xiang thinking" is the basic thinking of human beings and an important way of thinking in traditional Chinese medicine. For a long time, when we accept Western culture, we have ignored the origin of originality, and the development of Chinese medicine theory has become water without a source and a tree without roots. To develop traditional Chinese medicine, we must first find ourselves, start from the classics, and then develop better.
Obviously, ancient Chinese science and Western modern science have different ways of thinking and different views on nature, so they focus on different levels and discover laws. In terms of utensil manufacturing, the quantification of Western science is more accurate and clearer than ancient Chinese science, and it is more operational and verifiable at the empirical level. In terms of the overall grasp of life, ancient Chinese science is more wise. Its rationality and effectiveness are undeniable, not only seen by Chinese people, but also recognized by the United States and other Western countries. It is one-sided to deny that Chinese science is inaccurate and unclear.
The difference between Chinese and Western sciences embodies the difference between the two ways of thinking. Under this fundamental difference, the ancient Chinese science of generative theory (Chinese Tiandao science) and Western mechanistic science are mutually exclusive and complementary, and are similar to contemporary Western systemic generative science. It is impossible and unnecessary for one to eat the other; mutual recognition and mutual learning will surely create new ideas, which are also the main body and core of future science. How to correctly comprehend the basic spirit and theory of Chinese science and give its modern interpretation, how to sort out a set of empirically operable rules and effective testing standards according to its own norms, and more importantly, how to inherit China's To innovate with scientific thinking, it really needs a great dredging of Chinese and Western ways of thinking and culture at all levels.
How to further develop and improve Chinese Tiandao Science?
Summarizing and summarizing the systematic theory of Chinese Tiandao Science, and gradually promoting it to the world, so that more people of insight can learn and understand, is the future and driving force of scientific development. The following aspects are what contemporary Chinese should and must do:
1. Reinterpret the theory of Chinese Tiandao science based on Zhouyi, Taiji, Taoism, Yin-Yang and other ideas.
2. Reconstruct or create the essence of Chinese Tiandao science based on the cultural system of "ontology, axiology and practice".
3. Re-clean up and put forward the non-substantial, non-objective, and non-existing characteristics, so as to have the "meteorological", the systemic nature of the Chinese Tiandao science that generates the integrity and the coherence.
4. Clarify that starting from Xiang thinking, combining understanding and practice, using "xiang-number logic", focusing on practical experience and testing with Chinese Tiandao science, sorting out and proposing the methodological principles of Chinese Tiandao science to generate holism.
5. Summarize and put forward the basic universal laws and basic models of natural generation with Chinese Tiandao Science.
6. Propose the classification system of Chinese Tiandao science which is different from the classification system of Western disciplinary theory.
7. Research and propose successful examples of Chinese Tiandao science (such as Tiandao astrophysics, Tiandao sociology, Tiandao economics, Taoism and Chinese medicine, Tiandao psychology, Tiandao kinematics, etc.).
8. To publicize and introduce the technique of "Shangxiang Ware" and the engineering technology of "Tao-fa-Nature" based on Chinese Tiandao science.
9. Creatively introduce the scientific thinking and scientific methods of Western mechanical science into Chinese Tiandao Science, absorb, digest, integrate, and exert it to the extreme.
The advantages and disadvantages of Chinese Tiandao science and Western mechanical science
The greatest advantage of Chinese Tiandao science is the unity of man and nature, protecting the environment, conforming to nature, and not rushing for quick success; emphasizing the combination of rationality and practicality, so that thousands of years of civilization can be inherited. The biggest disadvantage is that it is limited by the religious and political environment, and there are few breakthroughs in thinking.
The greatest advantage of Western mechanical science is creative thinking and theorizing, turning whimsical into reality, making human society more comfortable, lazy and convenient. The biggest shortcoming is that liberalism, eager for quick success, destroys the environment, and destroys the stability and integrity of the entire human society and the human body.
What if the two were combined into one?
This is obviously the best result, and it is also the scientific development direction of human society in the future, and some hope has been seen so far. For example, the coordination, diversity and naturalness of human society; the interaction, practicality and prudence of scientific and technological development; the regional, environmental protection and mutual benefit of economic development; the globality, balance and security of war and peace ; The globalization, standardization and legalization of various Internets, etc. Those risky, radical, destructive thinking, as well as superstitious, hegemonic, decadent thinking, will definitely be gradually eliminated by the historical trend. Deforestation to make paper and recycling is the best example. Zeng Shiqiang (October 20, 1935-November 11, 2018), a master of Chinese studies, once said: Before the Ming Dynasty, our science was all leading the world, when astronomy and geography were very developed. But we realize that if science continues to develop, it will destroy all mankind. Therefore, the more advanced the science and technology in the future, the more the thinking of the "Book of Changes" will be used to guide the correctness. Only then can science and technology truly benefit mankind and achieve great development.
Last words
Given that for a long time, many of us have used Western mechanical science norms as the standard, and used Western logical conceptual thinking methods to think, study, interpret and evaluate Chinese civilization, traditional Chinese culture and Chinese Tiandao science, and even think that Western mechanical science is modern science, which is inevitable. Far-fetched, cutting feet to fit shoes, and even learning to walk in Handan, forgetting the ancestors. Cultural self-confidence is the full affirmation and active practice of one's own cultural value, and firm confidence in the vitality of its culture. In the face of the wave of globalization, although there will be many different ways, ways and levels of communication and dialogue between Chinese and Western cultures and sciences, it is necessary to clear the source and promote the connection, complementarity and integration of conceptual thinking and image thinking, and comprehensively improve the thinking of Chinese Tiandao science. This method is actually the fundamental way for Chinese culture and science to innovate independently and to promote global scientific and technological progress.
This article is not a complete denial of the contribution of Western science to society and life, but only to refute some people's denial of the contribution of Chinese Tiandao science. Western science and technology progress, capital and profit, after discovering problems, they learn Chinese thinking in turn. This is the ultimate conclusion drawn by Western precision science. China's scientific and technological progress has also been learning from the West, reflecting on it, and summarizing its own scientific theories. This is the scientific progress produced by China's Tiandao Science under the theoretical guidance of thousands of years! Only the Chinese civilization is a thought with the goal of uncovering the secrets of the entire universe!
It can be seen from this that Western scientific thinking and scientific methods, as well as Chinese Tiandao science and scientific methods, have certain limitations, and neither can become the core of modern science. Modern science must be a combination of Chinese methods of Tiandao science and Western methods of mechanical science, complementing each other and learning from each other. In other words, all hypotheses, experiments, logic, and mathematics need to be added to the way of heaven, return to nature, and abandon war, greed, and plunder. This is the development direction of modern science!
